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[Cancer Research 60, 3722-3726, July 15, 2000]
© 2000 American Association for Cancer Research

Advances in Brief

Identification of Fractalkine, a CX3C-type Chemokine, as a Direct Target of p531

Kenji Shiraishi, Seisuke Fukuda, Toshiki Mori, Koichi Matsuda, Tatsuya Yamaguchi, Chizu Tanikawa, Michio Ogawa, Yusuke Nakamura2 and Hirofumi Arakawa

Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Human Genome Center, Institute of Medical Science, University of Tokyo, Tokyo 108-8639, Japan [K. S., S. F., T. M., K. M., T. Y., C. T., Y. N., H. A.], and Department of Surgery II, Kumamoto University Medical School, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan [K. S., M. O.]


   ABSTRACT
Top
 ABSTRACT
Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results and Discussion
 REFERENCES
 
Fractalkine is a CX3C-type chemokine that induces chemotaxis of monocytes and cytotoxic T cells. Using the differential display method for examining gene expression in p53-defective cells transfected by adenovirus containing wild-type p53, we observed that fractalkine was induced by ectopic expression of p53. An electrophoretic mobility shift assay showed that a potential p53-binding site present in the promoter of the fractalkine gene could bind to p53 protein. Moreover, a heterogeneous reporter assay indicated that this promoter sequence possessed p53-dependent transcriptional activity. The strong induction of fractalkine when p53 protein was expressed by a wild-type transgene in p53-defective cells brought to light a novel role for p53; that is, potential elimination of damaged cells by the host immune response system through transcriptional regulation of fractalkine. Our results imply a pivotal role of p53 in immunosurveillance to prevent cells from undergoing malignant transformation.


   Introduction
Top
 ABSTRACT
 Introduction
Materials and Methods
 Results and Discussion
 REFERENCES
 
The p53 gene is mutated in more than half of the cancers examined by numerous investigators (1) . The protein it encodes functions as a transcription factor when it binds to specific DNA sequences, exerting a tumor-suppressive function through transcriptional regulation of target genes that possess its binding site(s) (2) . Several such target genes have been isolated already; usually they appear to function as mediators of either cell cycle arrest or apoptosis (2) . One of them, p21Waf1, is considered one of the most important p53 targets because its protein product is essential for cell cycle arrest (3, 4) ; another, BAX, might mediate p53-dependent apoptosis (5) . These two functions of p53 are believed to constitute the core mechanisms of p53-dependent tumor suppression (2) . Recently, however, we reported evidence that p53 might be involved directly in the repair of damaged DNA (6) . Moreover, given the fact that by now so many p53-target genes have been reported by our group and others (3–12) and because at least 100 potential binding sites for p53 are present in the human genome (13) , we predict that p53 might achieve tumor suppression through not a few but multiple physiological functions. Before the precise mechanism(s) of p53 can be clarified, identification of additional target genes would seem to be unavoidable.

Chemokines, secreted proteins of low molecular weight, provide important signals for migration of leukocytes. Chemokines are classified into three major subfamilies, CXC, CC, and C, on the basis of the number and spacing of the first two cysteines in a conserved structural motif. CXC molecules target neutrophils and, to some degree, lymphocytes; CC molecules target monocytes, lymphocytes, basophils, and eosinophils with variable selectivity; and the C chemokine seems to act only on lymphocytes (14) . A fourth type of chemokine, designated fractalkine (CX3C), differs from all three of those families in that it is a unique transmembrane molecule, a mucin/chemokine hybrid, which is expressed on the surfaces of endothelial cells activated by cytokines (14, 15) . In contrast to other chemokines, fractalkine has multiple functions; it transduces signals through a CX3CR1 receptor and plays a role in adhesion of monocytes, NK3 cells and T cells (14–16) . In addition, the soluble form of fractalkine is chemotactic for monocytes, NK cells, and T lymphocytes (14) . Cleavage of CX3C from the membrane might serve to modulate trafficking at local sites of infection or inflammation.

Here we report evidence to suggest that fractalkine is a direct transcriptional target of p53. The p53-directed regulation of this chemokine provides a novel model of p53 participation in immunosurveillance, i.e., interaction with the host immune system to prevent damaged cells from undergoing malignant transformation.


   Materials and Methods
Top
 ABSTRACT
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
Results and Discussion
 REFERENCES
 
Cell Lines.
Human cancer cell lines U373 MG (glioblastoma), MCF7 (breast cancer), and H1299 (lung carcinoma) were purchased from American Type Culture Collection. All cells were cultured under conditions recommended by their respective depositors.

Differential Display.
Replication-deficient recombinant viruses Ad-p53 and Ad-LacZ, encoding p53 and LacZ, respectively, under control of the human cytomegalovirus promoter, were generated as described previously (17) . Human glioma cell line U373 MG, in which no wild-type p53 is expressed, was infected with Ad-p53 or Ad-LacZ at an multiplicity of infection of 80. Total RNA was isolated with TRIzol Reagent (Life Technologies, Inc., Rockville, MD), following the manufacturer’s instructions, on a time course of 0, 6, 12, 24, and 48 h after infection. Poly(A) RNA was purified from each total RNA with Oligotex-dT30 (JSR, Tokyo, Japan). Each isolated poly(A)+ RNA (0.2 µg) was mixed with 25 pmol of 3'-anchored oligo(dT) primer (GT15 MG, GT15 MA, GT15 MT, or GT15 MC, where M represents a mixture of G, A, and C) in 8 µl of diethylpyrocarbonate-treated water, and heated at 65°C for 5 min. To this solution were added 4 µl of 5x first-strand buffer (Life Technologies, Inc.), 2 µl of 0.1 M DTT, 1 µl each of 250 µM deoxynucleotide triphosphates, 1 µl of RNase inhibitor (40 units; TOYOBO), and 1 µl of Superscript II reverse transcriptase (200 units; Life Technologies, Inc.), to a final volume of 20 µl. After the mixture was incubated at 37°C for 1 h, it was diluted 2.5-fold by addition of 30 µl of diethylpyrocarbonate-treated water and stored at -20°C until use.

The reversely transcribed cDNA mixtures (2 µl each) were amplified by the PCR, in a mixture containing 2 µl of 10x EX Taq buffer (TaKaRa), 1.5 µl of each 2.5-mM deoxynucleotide triphosphate, 0.25 µl of EX Taq (5 units; TaKaRa), 4.25 µl of water, 10 pmol each of 3'-anchored oligo(dT) primer, and [33P]ATP (10 mCi/ml; Amersham) labeled 5'-primer (12-mer deoxyoligonucleotide primer with arbitrary sequences). Amplification was performed under the following conditions: 2 min at 94°C, then 40 cycles of 20 s at 94°C, 30 s at 45°C, and 1 min at 72°C, followed by 5 min at 72°C. Amplified cDNAs were separated on 6% sequencing gels. Subcloning of fragments and DNA sequencing were performed as described previously (11) .

Semiquantitative RT-PCR Analysis and Northern Blotting.
RT-PCR experiments were carried out using cDNA generated from 0.2 µg of total RNA. The PCR was performed for 30 cycles of 94°C for 30 s, 55°C for 30 s, and 72°C for 2 min. Two µg of poly(A)+ RNA were separated on a 1% agarose gel containing 1x 4-morpholinepropanesulfonic acid and 2% formaldehyde and transferred onto a nylon membrane. The membrane was hybridized with random-primed 32P-labeled fractalkine cDNA, washed with 0.1x SSC, 0.1% SDS at 65°C, and exposed for autoradiography at -80°C.

Electrophoretic Mobility Shift Assay.
Synthesized oligonucleotides 5'-GGGCATGTTCCCAGCTTGTGGGGGCATGTTCCCAGCTTGTGG-3' were annealed and labeled with [{gamma}32P]dATP. Nuclear extracts from lung cancer cell line H1299 infected with Ad-p53 were incubated with the radiolabeled double-stranded oligomer for 30 min at room temperature, in a reaction volume containing 2.0 µg of sonicated salmon sperm DNA, EMSA buffer [0.5 x TBE, 20 mM HEPES (pH 7.5), 0.1 M NaCl, 1.5 mM MgCl2, 10 mM DTT, 20% glycerol, 0.1% NP40, 1 mM phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, 10 mg/ml pepstatin, and 10 mg/ml leupeptin]. In some cases, monoclonal anti-p53 antibodies, pAb421 (Oncogene Science), and/or pAb1801 (Santa Cruz Biotechnology) were present in the mixture. After incubation, each sample was electrophoresed in a native 4% polyacrylamide gel using 0.5x TBE. The gels were dried and exposed for autoradiography at -80°C for 3 h.

Luciferase Assay.
Oligonucleotides 5'-CGCGTGGGCATGTTCCCAGCTTGTGGGGGCATGTTCCCAGCTTGTGGC-3' (sense) and 5'-TCGAGCCACAAGCTGGGAACATGCCCCCACAAGCTGGGAACATGCCCA-3' (antisense) were annealed and ligated into MluI- and XhoI- digested pGL3-promoter vector (Promega Corp., Madison, WI). The plasmid was designated pGL3-FKNBS2. Reporter plasmids pGL3-FKNPro1 and pGL3-FKNPro2 were constructed by excising the gene and subcloning them into pGL3-Basic (Promega). Three oligonucleotides were designed as follows: 5'-AAAACGCGTGGCCTTTTGTGTGTTGCCCACTTA-3' (F1), 5'-AAAACGCGTCAACATCCTGAGGAATCCAGCGGC-3 (F2), and 5'-AAACTCGAGAGGCGGCTAGAGCCAGGCGGC-3' (R1). H1299 cells were plated in 60-mm tissue culture dishes (1 x 105 cells/dish) 24 h before cotransfection of 1 µg of pGL3-FKNBS2 or pGL3-Control vector and p53-wt or p53-mt vectors in combination with 1 µg of pRL-TK vector, according to the manufacturer’s optimized methodology (FuGENETM6 Transfection Reagent; Roche). To make pGL3-FKNPro1-mt1 or pGL3-FKNPro1-mt2, a point mutation "T" was inserted into the site of either the fourth nucleotide "C" or the seventh nucleotide "G" of p53BS using the QuickChange site-directed mutagenesis kit (Stratagene). For the promoter assay, pGL3-FKNPro1, pGL3-FKNPro2, pGL3-FKNPro1-mt1, or pGL3-FKNPro1-mt2 vector was cotransfected the same way. Thirty-six h after transfection, cells were lysed in 250 µl of a passive lysis buffer (Promega). The lysates were forwarded directly to the Dual Luciferase assay system (Promega), which depends on sequential measurements of firefly and Renilla luciferase activities in specific substrates (beetle luciferin and coelenterazine, respectively). Quantification of both luciferase activities and calculations of relative ratios were carried out manually with a luminometer.

Cell Treatments by Gamma Irradiation.
We used two cell lines, MCF7 and H1299. Cells were seeded 24 h prior to treatment and were 50–70% confluent at the time of treatment. Cells were irradiated (0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60 Gy) at ~1 Gy/min. RNAs were isolated from cells incubated for different periods of time (0, 6, 12, 24, and 48 h). To examine expression of the fractalkine gene in the damaged cells, we performed RT-PCR according to the regime described above. The PCR products were transferred to nylon membranes, and the blots were hybridized with an internal oligonucleotide probe. The blots were washed with 6x SSC at 50°C and exposed for autoradiography at -80°C for 3 h.


   Results and Discussion
Top
 ABSTRACT
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results and Discussion
REFERENCES
 
To isolate target genes that are inducible by wild-type p53, we applied a differential display method using mRNAs isolated from p53-deficient U373 MG cells transfected with adenovirus containing either wild-type p53 or Lac Z genes. A DNA fragment corresponding to one of the bands that showed stronger intensity in p53-transfected cells than in the Lac Z controls was excised, cloned, and sequenced. A BLAST search for homologies between the cloned DNA fragment and archived sequences indicated that this fragment was identical, according to the sequence of the fractalkine cDNA, and we performed semiquantitative RT-PCR analysis. The results clearly indicated that expression of the fractalkine gene was dramatically increased by transfection of Ad-p53, but not Ad-LacZ, in a time-dependent manner (data not shown). The results were confirmed by Northern blotting (Fig. 1ACitation ). The early and strong induction by wild-type p53 suggested that fractalkine was likely to be a direct target of transcriptional activation by p53. To address this hypothesis, we searched for p53-binding site(s) within the 20-kb genomic sequence of the fractalkine gene, obtained from GenBank. We found four possible p53-binding sequences in the promoter region, each of which revealed a >75% match to the consensus p53-binding sequence proposed by El-Deiry et al. (18) .



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  		Fig. 1. Induction of fractalkine by p53. A, Northern blot analysis of fractalkine mRNA expression. Hybridization of the same blot with an actin probe is shown to demonstrate the amount of mRNA loaded in each lane. B, nucleotide sequence of the promoter region of the human fractalkine gene. A potential p53-binding sequence (p53BS) is indicated by a box, and the putative TATA box is underlined. The figure also shows the location of the three primers (F1, F2, and R1) used for PCR reactions to amplify the native promoter DNA. C, schematic representation of the promoter region detailed in B.

 
To verify whether p53 could in fact bind to any of these four candidate sequences, we applied an EMSA using the nuclear extract purified from H1299 cells infected by an adenoviral vector containing p53. Oligonucleotides were synthesized according to the four candidate sequences, and each was analyzed separately by EMSA. One of the four candidates showed specific binding to p53 protein. This sequence, designated p53BS, is located 279 bp upstream of the first exon (Fig. 1, B and C)Citation . Of the 20 bp of p53BS (with a 1-bp spacer), 17 matched the consensus p53-binding sequence (Fig. 2ACitation ). As shown in Fig. 2BCitation , p53BS was bound (Lanes 1 and 2), and a super-shifted band in the presence of mouse monoclonal anti-p53 antibody Pab421 clarified that the bound structure actually included p53 protein (Fig. 2Citation B, Lane 3). This evidence was clarified by specific competition with self-DNA but not TL (Fig. 2Citation B, Lanes 4 and 5) and by the super-super-shifted band in the presence of mouse monoclonal anti-p53 antibody Pab1801 (Fig. 2Citation B, Lane 6).



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  		Fig. 2. The p53-responsive site of the fractalkine gene. A, comparison of sequences between the possible p53-binding site (p53BS) of the fractalkine gene and the p53-binding consensus sequence. R, purine; Y, pyrimidine; W, A or T. B, EMSA experiments performed with purified nuclear extracts from H1299 cells infected with Ad-p53. The probe was a 32P-labeled oligonucleotide designed according to the sequence of p53BS. Anti-p53 antibodies Pab421 and Pab1801 were present in the lanes designated +. Interaction between p53 protein and DNA was inhibited by unlabeled oligonucleotides corresponding to the binding site of the fractalkine gene (Self) but not by nonspecific oligonucleotides (TL).

 
To examine further whether p53BS does possess p53-dependent transcriptional activity, we performed a heterogeneous-reporter assay using a pGL-FKN BS2 luciferase vector prepared by cloning two copies of p53BS upstream of the minimal SV40 promoter in the pGL3 promoter vector (Promega; Fig. 3ACitation ). Luciferase activity was strongly enhanced by cotransfection with wild-type p53 expression vector but not with mutant p53 (Fig. 3BCitation ). We also prepared pGL3-FKNPro1, which contained the native promoters of the fractalkine gene, and pGL3-FKNPro2, in which p53BS was deleted (Fig. 4ACitation ). Luciferase activity was induced more strongly by wild-type p53, but not by mutant p53, when we used pGL3-FKNPro1 (Fig. 4BCitation ). However, no induction was observed when pGL3-FKNPro2 was transfected (Fig. 4CCitation ). The p53-dependent transcriptional activity of pGL3-FKNPro1 was clearly blocked by a point mutation, which changes either the fourth nucleotide C or seventh nucleotide G of the p53 binding sequence of fractalkine to T (Fig. 4CCitation ). We further examined whether endogenous fractalkine could be induced by cell stress, such as DNA damage by gamma radiation. Fractalkine mRNA was induced by gamma radiation in a dose-dependent manner in MCF7 p53+/+ cells but not H1299 p53-/- cells. Fig. 5Citation demonstrates that fractalkine is induced by 50 Gy of gamma radiation in a p53-dependent manner. Taken together, these results clearly indicated that fractalkine is a direct target for p53, and that severe cell stress might be required for its induction.



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  		Fig. 3. Reporter assay. A, two copies of the 21-bp potential p53-binding sequence (BS2) were cloned upstream of the SV40 minimal promoter of luciferase to construct the reporter vector pGL3-FKNBS2. pGL3-CONTROL vector does not contain BS. B, left, basal levels of activities of pGL3-CONTROL and pGL3-FKNBS2 vectors. Right, activity of pGL3-FKNBS2 induced by either wild-type (wt-p53), mutant (mt-p53) p53, or mock (cont, control) expression vector. Luciferase activity is indicated relative to the activity of pGL3-CONTROL vector.

 


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  		Fig. 4. Reporter assay. A, amplified genomic DNAs with (pGL3-FKNPro1) or without (pGL3-FKNPro2) p53BS were cloned into pGL3-Basic vector. B, left, basal levels of activities of pGL3-FKNPro1 and pGL3-FKNPro2. Right, activity of pGL3-FKNPro1 induced by either wild-type (wt-p53), mutant (mt-p53) p53 or mock (cont, control) vector. Luciferase activity is indicated relative to the activity of pGL3-FKNPro2 vector. C, activity of either pGL3-FKNPro1 (Pro1), pGL3-FKNPro1-mt1 (Pro1-mt1), pGL3-FKNPro1-mt2 (Pro1-mt2), or pGL3-FKNPro2 (Pro2) induced by the wild-type p53 expression vector (wt-p53). Luciferase activity is indicated relative to the activity of pGL3-FKNPro2 vector.

 


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  		Fig. 5. p53-dependent induction of fractalkine transcription after DNA damage by gamma radiation. Expression of the ß2 MG gene was used as a quantity control in RT-PCR experiments to measure induction of fractalkine and p21Waf1. MCF7 cells contain wild-type p53. H1299 cells lack wild-type p53.

 
Chemokines play important roles in immunological surveillance to protect host cells from invasion by foreign molecules or infectious pathogens (14, 19, 20) . To target leukocytes and direct them toward the infected or inflammatory site, chemokines are secreted locally from many cell types including fibroblasts, endothelial cells, leukocytes, and others (14, 19, 20) . Migration of leukocytes occurs in several steps, each of which is regulated by chemokines (14, 19, 20) . Circulating leukocytes attach to endothelium with the mediation of integrin molecules; then, following a chemotactic gradient, they pass through the endothelial layer to extravascular spaces and move toward the tissues where the chemokines are being produced. The major role of chemokines is believed to be the host immune response against foreign pathogens or against inflammation in general.

The fact that fractalkine is directly regulated by p53 provides an attractive hypothesis concerning a role of p53 in the immune response. Specifically, p53 may bring about elimination of abnormal (dangerous) cells that have a high potential for malignant transformation, by causing NK cells to target them. Fractalkine secreted from an abnormal cell would spread through the tissues around it, enter blood vessels, and circulate throughout the body, forming a chemotactic gradient as if sending an "SOS" signal. Dangerous cells might be eliminated by self-killing through p53-dependent apoptosis and/or through p53-dependent targeting of NK cells. This model could explain one of the ways cancer cells escape from host immunosurveillance; if membrane-bound fractalkine is present on the surface of a cancer cell, CTLs and NK cells should attach firmly to that cell because they strongly express CX3CR receptor on their surfaces (16) . However, if p53 is mutated, this unusual chemokine will not be produced; in consequence, such a cell would have a greater likelihood of escaping the host immune response.

Several studies have exploited the leukocyte-chemoattractant properties of chemokines to enhance a host antitumor response through augmentation of leukocyte infiltration into the tumor. For example IP-10, a CXC chemokine, can elicit a thymus-dependent antitumor response in vivo (21) ; TCA3, the ß chemokine, can also inhibit tumor growth in vivo (22) . Others have shown that induction of MCP-1 expression in cancer cells results in suppression of tumor growth and metastasis (23) , and that lymphotactin combined with IL-2 can reduce the size of a tumor (24) . These results, and our discovery of direct regulation of fractalkine by p53, shed light on a mechanism by which p53 guards cells from malignant transformation and suggest the possibility of developing a novel form of cancer therapy.


   FOOTNOTES
 
The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. This article must therefore be hereby marked advertisement in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.

1 This work was supported in part by a Grant-in-Aid from the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture of Japan and by "Research for the Future" Program Grant 96L00102 of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science. Back

2 To whom requests for reprints should be addressed, at Human Genome Center, Institute of Medical Science, University of Tokyo, Shirokanedai, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8639, Japan. Phone: 81-3-5449-5372; Fax: 81-3-5449-5433; E-mail: yusuke{at}ims.u-tokyo.ac.jp Back

3 The abbreviations used are: NK, natural killer; RT-PCR, reverse transcription-PCR; EMSA, electrophoretic mobility shift assay. Back

Received 1/18/00. Accepted 6/ 2/00.


   REFERENCES
Top
 ABSTRACT
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results and Discussion
 REFERENCES
 

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Cancer Research Clinical Cancer Research
Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention Molecular Cancer Therapeutics
Molecular Cancer Research Cancer Prevention Research
Cancer Prevention Journals Portal Cancer Reviews Online
Annual Meeting Education Book Meeting Abstracts Online