| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
Carcinogenesis |
Laboratory of Women’s Health [B. J. D., E. A. M.] and Laboratory of Computational Biology and Risk Analysis [B. D. M., G. W. L.], National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709, and Nestlé Research Center, CH-1000 Lausanne 26, Switzerland [A. M. T.]
 |
ABSTRACT |
|---|
 Top ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
|
INTRODUCTION |
|---|
|
TopABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
TCDD may act directly on the ovary because the AhR message has been identified in rodent and primate ovaries by RT-PCR (12) , and the general scientific consensus is that most, if not all, of the effects of TCDD are mediated by initial binding to this transcription factor (13 , 14) . Moreover, the binding affinity of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons to the AhR correlates with the ability of these chemicals to cause ovarian toxicity and ovarian tumors in a strain and species-dependent manner in mice (15) . Thus, it is possible that TCDD elicits direct effects on the ovaries through the AhR that, in turn, modulates hormone levels, ER, or other ER-mediated pathways. Given the central role of the ovary and ovarian hormones in TCDD carcinogenicity in the liver, the purpose of this study was to determine the ovarian pathology within the framework of an initiation-promotion model and determine whether AhR is a factor in the ovarian pathology.
|
MATERIALS AND METHODS |
|---|
|
TopABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
Animals and Experimental Design.
The study design has been described elsewhere (16)
.
Briefly, at 70 days of age, female Sprague Dawley rats were initiated
with a single dose of DEN i.p. at 175 mg/kg in saline vehicle (1 ml/kg
body weight) or saline only. Two or 18 weeks after initiation,
promotion was started with biweekly oral gavage of TCDD in corn oil at
a dose of 1750 ng/kg, equivalent to 125 ng/kg/day. Controls received
corn oil. The study included four treatment categories: (a)
groups dosed continuously with TCDD or vehicle for 14 weeks, 30 weeks,
or 60 weeks, beginning 2 weeks after initiation; (b) groups
dosed continuously with TCDD for 30 weeks, followed by 16 or 30 weeks
of treatment with corn oil alone; (c) groups dosed with TCDD
for 14 or 30 weeks beginning 18 weeks after initiation; and
(d) groups dosed with TCDD for 30 weeks, followed by 16
weeks of dosing with corn oil only beginning 18 weeks after initiation.
Necropsies were performed 1 week after the last treatment. All time
points included control animals receiving the vehicles saline and corn
oil only and animals initiated only.
Serum was collected from cardiac puncture at necropsy. Serum levels of estradiol, progesterone, and testosterone were analyzed by RIA (Diagnostic Products Inc., Los Angeles, CA) from serum stored at -70°C. A complete histomorphological examination was done on ovaries, uterus, cervix, vagina, and all grossly characterized masses of the reproductive tract at all time points of the study. Rats were categorized into stages of the estrous cycle by vaginal histology and correlated with uterine and ovarian histology.
Cell proliferation rates were determined by BrdUrd incorporation by mini osmotic pumps (Alzet model 2 ml, 10 ml/hr; Alza Corp., Palo Alto, CA) filled with 30 mg/ml BrdUrd implanted into each rat 7 days before necropsy. Nuclear BrdUrd incorporation was detected by immunohistochemistry using 1:50 dilution of mouse-anti-BrdUrd antibody (Becton Dickinson, San Jose, CA). Cell proliferation rates were generated by computer-assisted image analysis using a Microimage Video system and NIH image (v5.8). Positive (brown) nuclei and total nuclei were counted from at least five, x40 fields per slide from four separate ovaries with a diagnosis of hyperplasia and three ovaries with a diagnosis of tumor.
AhR Studies.
RT-PCR was performed on total RNA isolated from a single frozen rat
ovary using TRI Reagent (Molecular Research Center, Inc., Cincinnati,
OH). Primer pairs for RT-PCR were selected from the rat AhR (GenBank
accession no. U09000), nucleotides 1399–1422
(5'-tgcggggctcgaaagaagacagag-3') for reverse primer and nucleotides
1073–1096 (5'-ggaggtgggtccagtccaatgcac-3') for forward primer and made
by Bioserve Biotechnologies (Laurel, MD). RT-PCR was performed on 800
ng of total RNA. The PCR reaction was 35 cycles of 30 s at 94°C,
30 s annealing at 60°C, and 30 s at 72°C, followed by a
4-min extension at 72°C. Restriction enzyme digest using Fok I and
BamHI (Promega) confirmed the AhR product.
In situ hybridization was performed using a digoxigenin-labeled probe generated from a 1.8-kb cDNA fragment of the mouse amino terminal DNA sequence subcloned into pBluescript II plasmid (Stratagene, La Jolla, CA), which was kindly provided by C. Bradfield (17) and used previously for in situ hybridization studies (18) . The mouse sequence has nearly 100% homology to the rat AhR (19) . The plasmid was linearized with XhoI or XbaI (Stratagene), then labeled with digoxigenin using an Ambion transcription kit (Austin, TX). Riboprobes were then reduced to 150–200 bp by alkaline hydrolysis and used at a final concentration of 1.0 mg/ml. The hybridization was performed on formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded sections of mouse and rat liver (as controls), rat ovary, and ovarian tumor using methods described previously (20) .
Immunolocalization of AhR was done on normal Sprague Dawley rat ovary and ovarian tumors using a standard avidin-biotin antiperoxidase detection system (Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, CA). TCDD-treated rat liver served as a positive control. AhR antibodies were generated from rabbits immunized with a synthetic peptide corresponding to amino acids 371–399 of the human AhR plus a COOH-terminal cysteine conjugated to maleimide-activated Imject KLH (Pierce Chemical Co., Rockford, IL). The specificity of the immunopurified antibody (Immunopure Plus Protein A IgG purification kit; Pierce Chemical Co.) as well as the cross-reactivity with rat AhR was confirmed by Western blot analysis (data not shown) on normal rat liver. AhR was detected in 5-µm sections of fixed tissues following standard protocols. Positive staining was visualized with 3,3'-diaminobenzidine tetrachloride (Sigma Fast DAB tablet set; Sigma Chemical Co.) using 0.05% Toluidine Blue as counterstain (Fisher Scientific, Fair Lawn, NJ).
Statistical Analyses.
Serum hormones were analyzed by ANOVA after log transformation of data
(JMP; SAS Institute, Inc., Cary, NC). Tumor incidence data were
analyzed by Fisher’s exact test.
|
RESULTS |
|---|
|
TopABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
. The highest tumor incidence occurred in DEN-initiated rats treated
with TCDD continuously for 60 weeks (6 of 14 rats). The tumor incidence
in this group was statistically different (P < 0.05) from the DEN-initiated concurrent control group (0 of
11). The earliest time point of occurrence of this tumor was after 30
weeks of continuous TCDD treatment, with one of six animals developing
this tumor (17% incidence). Tumors were also in rats in group II that
were continuously dosed for 30 weeks with TCDD, but then kept for an
additional 15 or 30 weeks on vehicle alone. In groups III and IV in
which rats were exposed to TCDD beginning 18 weeks after initiation, 1
of 6 rats was identified with an ovarian tumor after only 15 weeks of
TCDD treatment. After 30 weeks, 1 of 15 rats developed an ovarian
tumor. Four of 12 (33%) rats developed ovarian tumors when dosed for
30 weeks and then kept for an additional 17 weeks on vehicle only.
|
. Tubules were lined by one to three disorganized
layers of elongated or polyhedral cells with abundant pale eosinophilic
wispy cytoplasm and basally located nuclei. At least one-fourth of the
cells in a tubule contained large clear intracytoplasmic vacuoles, and
other cells contained numerous round, 1–2-µm diameter, bright
eosinophilic intracytoplasmic granules (Fig. 1C)
. Nuclei
were vesicular with a single small nucleolus. Benign tumors were
diagnosed microscopically based on size (1-mm diameter or greater),
distinct separation from ovarian stroma into nodular masses with
partial or complete encapsulation, and compression of surrounding
parenchyma.
|
Ovaries from four rats with hyperplastic lesions and three rats with
benign tumors were stained for BrdUrd incorporation as an indicator of
cell proliferation (Fig. 1, D–F)
. Cells were stained for
nuclear BrdUrd in hyperplastic foci in a random pattern with a mean of
4.75 ± 1 per 62 cells (7.6% proliferation rate).
Neoplastic cells stained for nuclear BrdUrd in a much higher frequency,
and in some tubules all cells incorporated BrdUrd. The mean number of
positive nuclei was 30 ± 2.6 per 53 cells (78%
proliferation rate).
The presence of ovarian AhR message was confirmed by RT-PCR (Fig. 2)
. AhR protein and message were localized by immunohistochemistry and
in situ hybridization in a hyperplastic lesion, two benign
tumors, and one malignant tumor. Faint nuclear and cytoplasmic
immunopositive staining and intense staining for message was present in
the large hyperplastic and neoplastic pleomorphic cells lining tubules
(Fig. 3)
. Additionally, AhR message and protein were localized to the nucleus
and cytoplasm in oocytes, and granulosa and thecal cells of primordial
and growing follicles in ovaries from a control rat, a noninitiated
animal treated with TCDD for 60 weeks, and in an ovary from a
DEN-initiated rat with 60 weeks of TCDD treatment that also contained a
benign tumor (Fig. 4)
. Minimal to no staining for receptor was seen in granulosa cells or
thecal cells of mature, antral follicles.
|
|
|
. These cells also
had faint cytoplasmic staining. Such tubules may have represented
precursor lesions given that similar structures, but surrounding an
oocyte, were found within tumors (see Fig. 1, E and F
). No significant treatment-related changes in serum estradiol and progesterone levels or ratios of estradiol:progesterone were detected after data were log transformed and analyzed by ANOVA. No significant differences were detected when rats with tumors were compared with appropriate controls at 60 weeks. Testosterone levels were below the detection levels of the assay in all cases.
|
DISCUSSION |
|---|
|
TopABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
The primary effect of TCDD on the adult female rat reproductive tract appears limited to the ovary, because no other significant lesions were found that could not be attributed to age or weight (data not shown). Given the specificity of effect in this study, TCDD appears to act directly on the ovary to promote tumor development. Previous studies have found that TCDD acts as an endocrine disrupter. For example, a single treatment of TCDD suppressed estradiol production by the ovary in immature rats stimulated with ovulatory doses of gonadotropins (23) . Additionally, in primates, chronic administration of TCDD decreased serum estrogen and progesterone levels (24) . Although changes in serum hormone levels may have occurred acutely but undetected in our study, there were no significant differences in serum hormone levels between the various treatment groups at any time point. Thus, it is likely that the tumors were promoted by TCDD directly acting on the ovary. The resulting ovarian changes may then secondarily impact hormonal balances. Indeed, Sertoli cell tumors in women may manifest clinically as hyperestrogenism (25) .
Sertoli cell tumors belong to the class of sex cord-stromal tumors that includes the histological subtypes of granulosa cell tumors, thecomas, Sertoli cell tumors, and stromal tumors (26) . Sertoli cell tumors or Sertoliform-like tumors occur as a rare spontaneous tumor in about 2% of Sprague Dawley rats (154 of 7748 rats) at 130 weeks of age (27) . These tumors have also been induced by N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea but not by DEN at equivalent doses used in this study (28) . Thus, the rarity of this tumor in rats and the initiation/promotion model used in this study are further support that TCDD promotes the development of Sertoli cell tumors in female rats.
The histomorphological observations of our study suggest that the ovarian Sertoli cell tumors are derived from granulosa cells, because a number of tumors contained both granulosa cells and Sertoli cells, and in some cases both cell phenotypes surrounded an oocyte. During development of the gonad, Sertoli cells and granulosa cells arise from the same progenitor sex cord cell while their function and fate become differentially determined in each sex. In the ovary, granulosa cells have a finite life span and die through apoptosis either during follicular development or after differentiating to a luteal cell after ovulation. In the testes, Sertoli cells normally have an indefinite life span as they support spermatogenesis. We propose that promotion by TCDD altered a fundamental apoptotic program of the DEN-initiated granulosa cell, allowing for survival and transdifferentiation to the male-patterned Sertoli cell. Indeed, TCDD has been shown to inhibit apoptosis in initiated hepatocytes in vivo (29) and in vitro (30) . Moreover, this inhibition of apoptosis of selected subpopulations of hepatocytes has been proposed as critical mechanistic step in liver tumor promotion in these models. The observed tumor promotion in the rat ovary could follow a similar mechanism of action.
A dysmorphogenesis or transdifferentiation of follicular growth and
atresia characterized by follicles containing remnants of oocytes
surrounded by Sertoli cells has been described in the ovaries of mice
deficient in both estrogen receptors 
and ß (31)
. As
TCDD has been shown to down-regulate ER in the liver and uterus
(10
, 11)
, it is possible that TCDD interacts and
down-regulates ER in the granulosa cells as it promotes tumor growth.
Because most effects of TCDD can be attributed to its activation of the
AhR, the presence and localization of AhR in undifferentiated granulosa
and thecal cells, which are of sex cord-stromal lineage, and within the
neoplastic cells in the ovarian tumors in this rodent study suggests
that TCDD may directly promote the survival and growth of initiated
cells through receptor-mediated events. The role of the AhR and its
activation in mediating TCDD toxicity and potentially its
carcinogenicity is complex because TCDD may mediate some toxic and
carcinogenic effects independently of activation of the AhR
(32)
. Nonetheless, the identification of the AhR message
and protein within TCDD-promoted ovarian tumors coupled with the
well-documented role of AhR in TCDD-mediated effects provide strong
evidence that this receptor pathway may be involved in ovarian
tumorigenesis. Moreover, the identification of the AhR message and
protein in cells of immature follicles but not in differentiated cells
suggests this receptor may have a physiological role in follicular cell
function as well. However, additional studies of the role of AhR in
ovarian function and in tumorigenesis is needed because the antibody
used for the immunolocalization studies was a polyclonal peptide
antibody that can cross-react with other unidentified
proteins3
and because a systematic evaluation of expression in all tumors and in
all ovarian cell types under various hormonal and cycle conditions has
yet to be done.
An IARC working group concluded that TCDD seems to act similarly in rodents and people, and several epidemiological studies have shown an association between high dioxin exposure and adverse effects, including increased overall cancer risk in people (3) . Results from two epidemiological studies further support a link between ovarian cancers in women and the ovarian cancers produced experimentally through TCDD promotion in the rat. The first study investigated cancer incidence in 20,000 young, 0–19-year-old, Seveso, Italy, residents within the first 10 years after exposure to TCDD in an industrial accident (33) . One ovarian androblastoma and one ovarian tumor of germ cell origin were reported based on hospital discharge records. Sertoli cell tumors are also known as "androblastomas" or "arrhenoblastomas" and occur occasionally in women (25) . However, no ovarian tumors were expected or found in the aged-match reference population, and the relative risk for ovarian tumor development was infinity in the TCDD-exposed group. Because no direct exposure measurements were available from the persons developing the tumors, the true exposure of the tumor-developing individuals is unknown. The second study investigated cancer incidence in a cohort of 334 women exposed to high levels of dioxins as well as hexachlorocylcohexane during the manufacturing of different herbicides and insecticides (34) . An increased incidence of ovarian cancer (4 cases observed versus 2.6 cases expected; 95% CI, 0.41–3.96) was reported. However, no information is available on the exact types of tumors in this cohort.4 It is possible that the tumors occurred by random chance because there is a low number of cases and these tumor types can occur in young children as well as women. However, it may also be possible that the occurrence of ovarian tumors in these exposed human populations is truly significant. Given that our experimental studies produced ovarian tumors through TCDD promotion, that the AhR is present in follicular cells and tumors that are common between species, and that common ovarian tumor types are now reported in rodents and women exposed to TCDD, it is possible that exposure to TCDD and activation of the receptor may increase the risk for the development of ovarian cancer in women as is the case in the experimental model.
|
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
|---|
|
FOOTNOTES |
|---|
1 To whom requests for reprints should be
addressed, at National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, P.O.
Box 12233, MD B3-06, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709. Phone: (919)
541-2764; Fax: (919) 541-7666; E-mail:Davis1{at}NIEHS.NIH.GOV 
2 The abbreviations used are: TCDD,
2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin; ER, estrogen
receptor; AhR, aryl hydrocarbon receptor; RT-PCR, reverse
transcription-PCR; BrdUrd, bromodoxyuridine; DEN, diethylnitrosamine.
3 A. Tritscher, unpublished observation.
4 D. Flesch-Janys, personal communication.
Received 1/ 3/00. Accepted 8/ 2/00.
|
REFERENCES |
|---|
|
TopABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
and ß. Science (Washington DC), 286: 2328-2331, 1999.This article has been cited by other articles:
|
|
 |
|
  B. D. Hollingshead, T. V. Beischlag, B. C. DiNatale, P. Ramadoss, and G. H. Perdew Inflammatory Signaling and Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Mediate Synergistic Induction of Interleukin 6 in MCF-7 Cells Cancer Res., May 15, 2008; 68(10): 3609 - 3617. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 U. A. Bussmann and J. L. Baranao Regulation of Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Expression in Rat Granulosa Cells Biol Reprod, September 1, 2006; 75(3): 360 - 369. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 D. R. Boverhof, J. C. Kwekel, D. G. Humes, L. D. Burgoon, and T. R. Zacharewski Dioxin Induces an Estrogen-Like, Estrogen Receptor-Dependent Gene Expression Response in the Murine Uterus Mol. Pharmacol., May 1, 2006; 69(5): 1599 - 1606. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
U. A. Bussmann, L. E. Bussmann, and J. L. Baranao An Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Agonist Amplifies the Mitogenic Actions of Estradiol in Granulosa Cells: Evidence of Involvement of the Cognate Receptors Biol Reprod, February 1, 2006; 74(2): 417 - 426. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
Y.-K. Leung, K.-M. Lau, J. Mobley, Z. Jiang, and S.-M. Ho Overexpression of Cytochrome P450 1A1 and Its Novel Spliced Variant in Ovarian Cancer Cells: Alternative Subcellular Enzyme Compartmentation May Contribute to Carcinogenesis Cancer Res., May 1, 2005; 65(9): 3726 - 3734. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 P. Pocar, R. Augustin, and B. Fischer Constitutive Expression of CYP1A1 in Bovine Cumulus Oocyte-Complexes in Vitro: Mechanisms and Biological Implications Endocrinology, April 1, 2004; 145(4): 1594 - 1601. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 M. T. Fisher, M. Nagarkatti, and P. S. Nagarkatti Combined Screening of Thymocytes Using Apoptosis-Specific cDNA Array and Promoter Analysis Yields Novel Gene Targets Mediating TCDD-Induced Toxicity Toxicol. Sci., March 1, 2004; 78(1): 116 - 124. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 B. J. Davis, G. Travlos, and T. McShane Reproductive Endocrinology and Toxicological Pathology over the Life Span of the Female Rodent Toxicol Pathol, January 1, 2001; 29(1): 77 - 83. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
| Cancer Research | Clinical Cancer Research |
| Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention | Molecular Cancer Therapeutics |
| Molecular Cancer Research | Cancer Prevention Research |
| Cancer Prevention Journals Portal | Cancer Reviews Online |
| Annual Meeting Education Book | Meeting Abstracts Online |
