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Invasion Activating Caveolin-1 Mutation in Human Scirrhous Breast Cancers¹

Department of Molecular Pathogenesis [K. H., S. M., K. M., M. H.], Second Department of Internal Medicine [K. H., K. M., Y. F., T. H.], and First Department of Surgery [T. Y., Y. N.], Nagoya University School of Medicine, Nagoya 466-8550 Japan

	ABSTRACT

Top ABSTRACT Introduction Materials and Methods Results and Discussion REFERENCES

 
We looked for mutations in the caveolin-1 gene, encoding a critical molecule for membrane signaling to cell growth, in 92 primary human breast cancers, and we report here the identification of a mutation in caveolin-1 at codon 132 (P132L) in 16% of cases. The mutation-positive cases were mostly invasive scirrhous carcinomas. In cell lines expressing the same mutant of caveolin-1, we observed that the mutant Caveolin-1 expression seemed to induce cellular transformation and activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase-signaling pathway and to promote invasion-ability as well as altered actin networks in the cells. These results provide, for the first time, genetic evidence that a functioning Caveolin-1 mutation may have a role in the malignant progression of human breast cancer.

	Introduction

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Molecular cloning had identified three distinct caveolin genes (1, 2, 3, 4) caveolin-1, caveolin-2, and caveolin-3. Alignment of the protein sequences encoded by these caveolin genes is shown in Fig. 1a . Note that most of the predicted functional domains of the caveolins are well-conserved among the family members, including the scaffolding domain and the membrane-spanning domain. It is well-known that one of the conserved amino acids in caveolin-3, the expression of which is muscle-specific, was found to be a disease-involved site (5, 6, 7, 8) . This site is evolutionarily conserved from worms to man, providing evidence that this region of the membrane-spanning domain is critical for Caveolin function. From these exciting findings, we surmised that the mutation of the amino acid in this site might function in an alternative physiological role among the caveolins. Then, we targeted the site to survey mutations in caveolin-1 in human tumors, because previous reports suggest identifying caveolin-1 as a candidate tumor suppressor gene (9, 10, 11) .

View larger version (43K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 1. Alignment of the protein sequences encoded by the human caveolin-1, caveolin-2, and caveolin-3. a, conserved amino acid residues are boxed. A Pro-Leu substitution at amino acid residue 105 in human caveolin-3 that led to an autosomal dominant form of limb-girdle muscular dystrophy is indicated by an *. Dashed-underlined amino acids and underlined amino acids correspond to the scaffolding domain and the hydrophobic membrane-spanning region, respectively. b, DNA sequence and restriction enzyme sites corresponding to around the Pro-132 in caveolin-1 are shown. Note that both Rsa-I and Nla-III are available and necessary for detecting the DNA-mutation corresponding to the Pro-132.

	Materials and Methods

Top ABSTRACT Introduction Materials and Methods Results and Discussion REFERENCES

PCR-RFLP Analysis.
The Ucav (sense, 5'-TTGGAAGGCCAGCTTCAC-3') and Dcav (antisense, 5'-GATAGGAACTTTACAGT-3') PCR primers were designed specifically to amplify the caveolin-1 sequences. The amplified caveolin-1 DNA fragments from genomic DNAs or cDNAs were digested at 37°C for 5 h with the indicated restriction endonucleases. The digested DNAs were electrophoresed in 0.8% agarose gel or in 6% polyacrylamide gel before the UV-photos.

Tissue Samples, Cell Lines, and Antibodies.
We obtained tumors and corresponding normal breast tissues with informed consent from 92 patients who had undergone mastectomy. All tumors were diagnosed histopathologically as carcinomas. Parental NIH3T3 cells were transfected, with the mutant or wild-type caveolin-1 genes introduced into pcDNA3 expression vector using a lipofection protocol. Resistant clones were selected with G418, as described before. Antibodies used were as follows: (a) antihuman caveolin-1, antihuman, and antimouse caveolin-1 (Transduction Laboratories); and (b) anti-Ras, anti-phosphoMAPK, anti-ERK2, anti-phopho-p38, anti-p38, anti-phophoAKT, and anti-AKT (New England Biolaboratories).

Sequence Analysis.
We purified aberrant PCR products detected by PCR-RFLP study. The DNA sequences of each aberrant sample and some normal samples were determined (13) using an Applied Biosystems DNA sequencer with a Dye-terminator Cycle Sequencing Ready Reaction Kit (Applied Biosystems). We also confirmed all mutations by repeated experiments (at least three times) using DNAs extracted from the tumor and corresponding tissues.

Cell Migration Assay.
Cells were grown in the presence of 10% fetal bovine serum until confluence. A wound area was generated by scraping with a plastic scraper. After 2 days, cells in the wounded monolayer were counted randomly at multiple fields.

Invasion Assay.
Cells were assayed for their invasiveness by a modified Boyden chamber method. Briefly, conditioned media obtained from NIH3T3 were placed in the lower compartment of the chamber. Cells suspended in serum-free DMEM were seeded onto Matrigel-coated filters. After 12 h of incubation, cells that had invaded to the lower surface of the filter were fixed, stained, and counted.

Immunofluorescence and Western Blotting.
To visualize polymerized actin, cells were fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde for 10 min, permeabilized with 0.5% Triton X-100 for 10 min, and incubated with 1 µg/ml FITC-labeled phalloidin (Sigma Chemical Comp.) for 1 h. Antibody against actin (Sigma Chemical Co.) also was used for indirect immunofluorescence. For the immunofluorescence, cells were also fixed with methanol/acetone for 10 min and permeabilized with 0.5% Triton X-100 for 10 min. They were incubated with the indicated antibody for 1 h at 37°C before a 1-h incubation with fluorescein isothiocyanate-conjugated goat anti-IgG antibody (Sigma Chemical Co.). Cells were viewed on a Nikon microscope and photographed. Western blotting was carried out according to the methods described before (12) .

	Results and Discussion

Top ABSTRACT Introduction Materials and Methods Results and Discussion REFERENCES

 
To assess the potential for caveolin-1 mutation in cases of breast cancer, we constructed PCR primers to specifically amplify a DNA fragment of human caveolin-1 sequences from genomic DNA of the tissue. We used conventional PCR-RFLP mutational screening because RFLP is a reliable and easy method for mutation screening if a proper enzymatic site exists in the target region (14) . As can be seen in Fig. 1b , the mutation in codon 132 eliminated Rsa-I and/or Nla III sites; then we were able to develop a rapid screen for the caveolin-1 mutation using Rsa-I- and Nla III-based RFLP assay. After purifying genomic DNAs derived from paired normal and tumor samples, we amplified caveolin-1 DNA fragments using the specific primers and performed PCR-RFLP assays (Fig. 2, a–c) . First, we screened DNA from 92 primary breast cancers for alterations of caveolin-1 and found 15 genetic alterations (7 scirrhous carcinomas, 3 solid tubular carcinomas, 2 papillo-tubular carcinomas, 2 invasive-lobular carcinomas, and 1 unknown carcinoma) among them. Almost all of the mutation-positive cases were invasive and/or scirrhous carcinomas. Mutations were confirmed by manual sequencing analyses (Fig. 3) . Pilot studies using the PCR-RFLP identified two cases (scirrhous carcinoma) of double mutations in codon 132 and 133 that were confirmed by manual sequencing (Fig. 3, a and b) , but we were unable to determine whether the mutations were allelic, because RNA from these samples was not available. Direct DNA sequencing also confirmed the mutation (Fig. 3c) . We could not observe loss of heterozygosity of the normal caveolin-1 gene in any of the breast cancer specimens, and none of the tumors harboring the mutation demonstrated microsatellite instability (data not shown). Although we screened 92 primary human breast cancer specimens with this assay, we were unable to successfully identify the P-L mutation in any of these tumors in DNA derived from normal, adjacent, matched tissue samples from patients with tumors harboring the codon 132 mutation. Furthermore, the genomic DNA analyses of the 26 normal healthy volunteers, from whom DNA was obtained from their peripheral blood leukocytes, failed to show that mutation at the site of caveolin-1 (Fig. 2, d–f) . In addition, none of the other eight normal healthy volunteers had such mutations in the mRNA from their normal tissues (data not shown). We concluded that all of those mutations found in the breast carcinomas occurred as somatic events.

View larger version (66K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 2. a–c, a representative result of PCR-RFLP analyses in breast cancer tissues (T) and the paired normal tissues (N) for detecting mutation. Polyacrylamide gels stained with ethidium bromide are shown and fragment lengths are given in bp on the right. a, Nla-III digestion. Heterozygous mutants are shown by *. b, Hinf-I digestion. No mutation is detected. c, Rsa-I digestion. No mutation is detected. d–f, a representative result of PCR-RFLP analyses in blood leukocytes from healthy volunteers. Neither mutation nor deletion is detected in every panel. d, no digestion. e, Rsa-I digestion and Nla-III digestion. f, Hinf-I digestion.

View larger version (49K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 3. Identification of caveolin-1 mutations in human breast cancer specimen. a, DNA sequencing electropherograms of the region consisting of Rsa-I and Nla-III sites depicting the mutation. Although the genomic mutation is heterozygous, a manual sequencing result derived from cloned PCR products is shown. Arrowhead, the site of mutation. Histopathological evaluation of the carcinomas is also shown in parentheses. Every sequence was verified several times by independent sequencing. b, DNA sequence and the mutation sites corresponding to the Pro-132 and Cys-133 in caveolin-1 are shown. c, representative direct DNA sequencing chromograms corresponding to the mutation site. The mutation is at codon 132, leading to Leu instead of to Pro.

View larger version (49K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 4. Derivation and characterization of NIH3T3 cells harboring the caveolin-1 mutation. a, expression of the exogenous human caveolin-1 mutant in normal mouse NIH3T3 cells by Western blot analysis. Lysates were prepared from parental NIH3T3 cells (3T3) and NIH3T3 cells harboring the P-L mutation (P132L) of caveolin-1 (termed Cl3, Cl4, Cl5, and Cl6). Immunoblotting was performed with antihuman caveolin-1 (h-Cav1) and antimouse (t-Cav1). Western blots using anti-Ras- and anti-SHPS1-specific antibodies are also shown as controls. In all panels, each Lane contains an equal amount of total protein. b, parental NIH3T3 cells (3T3) and NIH3T3 cells harboring the P-L mutation of caveolin-1 (Cl3) were compared morphologically. c, parental NIH3T3 cells (3T3) and NIH3T3 cells harboring the P-L mutation of caveolin-1 (Cl3) were compared with immunofluorescence microscopy of actin stress fibers stained with phalloidin. d, immunoblot analyses with antiphospho-MAPK, antiphospho-p38-MAPK, and antiphospho-AKT. Immunoblots with the antibodies against the nonphosphorylated kinases are also shown. In all panels, each Lane contains an equal amount of total protein. e–f, invasive ability of the cells. The invasive ability was assayed by a modified Boyden chamber method. e, average values ± SD of a typical experiment are shown. The result of active v-Src-transformed-3Y1 cells (SR) is also shown as a positive control. f, a representative result of the invasion assay. Note that numbers of cells penetrated the membrane, which appeared as black spots, in both Cl3 and SR cells compared with the WT and NIH3T3 control cells. These results were confirmed by several additional experiments and by using more than three independent clones.

The mutation-positive cases of breast cancer were mostly involved in the pathologically invasive types such as scirrhous carcinomas (18) . Hence, we suspected that the expression of the caveolin-1 mutant may affect the invasive ability of the cells.

The invasiveness of cells was then evaluated by the modified Boyden chamber method as described (19) . As can be seen in Fig. 4, e and f , the mutant cells could penetrate through the reconstituted membrane to a level similar to that of SR3Y1, whereas the wild-type caveolin-1 cells and parental NIH3T3 could not. In addition, rapid in vitro cell motility evaluated using a wound healing assay (20) showed that the transfectants of the mutant exhibited high motility-potential compared with the parental cells or with the clones of wild-type caveolin-1 (data not shown).

Caveolin-1 has been reported to participate in oncogenic processes in vitro, yet no genetic evidence had been presented that implicated this gene in the development or the progression of human cancer. Although Hurlstone et al. (9) reported previously that there was no mutation in the caveolin-1 gene in human cancers, we sought the mutation more intensively, focusing on human breast cancers. Here we have provided evidence for the existence of at least one naturally occurring mutant form of caveolin-1 that appears to have a role in human cancer. The results presented in this paper revealed that the mutation of caveolin-1 had a dominant negative effect on cell transformation and invasiveness. In addition, these findings indicate that caveolin-1 is likely to function as a tumor suppressor. We speculate that other effective caveolin-1 mutations, which we have not found yet, might exist, because there are other consensus sites for caveolin family members that were found to be at least critical sites in the scaffolding domain for caveolin-3 in limb-girdle muscular dystrophy. At this time, the study demonstrated in this paper may provide an experimental basis for additional analysis of caveolin-1 mutation in human diseases. In addition, investigation of signaling pathways affected by caveolins should provide additional insights into the molecular pathogenetical action of caveolae disorders.

	ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

 
We thank Yu-ki Iwata for her excellent technical assistance.

	FOOTNOTES

 
The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. This article must therefore be hereby marked advertisement in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.

¹ Supported by a Grant-in-Aid for scientific research on priority areas and for COE Research from the Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture of Japan and by a grant under the Monbusho International Scientific Research Program.

² K. H. and S. M. contributed equally to this work.

³ To whom requests for reprints should be addressed, at Nagoya University School of Medicine, Department of Molecular Pathogenesis, 65 Tsurumai-cho, Showa-ku, Nagoya, Japan, 466-8550. Phone: 81-52-744-2463; Fax: 81-52-744-2464; E-mail: smatsuda{at}med.nagoya-u.ac.jp

⁴ The abbreviations used are: MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase; WT, wild type.

Received 11/21/00. Accepted 1/25/01.

	REFERENCES

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				T. M. Williams, F. Medina, I. Badano, R. B. Hazan, J. Hutchinson, W. J. Muller, N. G. Chopra, P. E. Scherer, R. G. Pestell, and M. P. Lisanti Caveolin-1 Gene Disruption Promotes Mammary Tumorigenesis and Dramatically Enhances Lung Metastasis in Vivo: ROLE OF CAV-1 IN CELL INVASIVENESS AND MATRIX METALLOPROTEINASE (MMP-2/9) SECRETION J. Biol. Chem., December 3, 2004; 279(49): 51630 - 51646. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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				X. Ren, A. G. Ostermeyer, L. T. Ramcharan, Y. Zeng, D. M. Lublin, and D. A. Brown Conformational Defects Slow Golgi Exit, Block Oligomerization, and Reduce Raft Affinity of Caveolin-1 Mutant Proteins Mol. Biol. Cell, October 1, 2004; 15(10): 4556 - 4567. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				N. Sunaga, K. Miyajima, M. Suzuki, M. Sato, M. A. White, R. D. Ramirez, J. W. Shay, A. F. Gazdar, and J. D. Minna Different Roles for Caveolin-1 in the Development of Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer versus Small Cell Lung Cancer Cancer Res., June 15, 2004; 64(12): 4277 - 4285. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				T. M. Williams, H. Lee, M. W.-C. Cheung, A. W. Cohen, B. Razani, P. Iyengar, P. E. Scherer, R. G. Pestell, and M. P. Lisanti Combined Loss of INK4a and Caveolin-1 Synergistically Enhances Cell Proliferation and Oncogene-induced Tumorigenesis: ROLE OF INK4a/CAV-1 IN MAMMARY EPITHELIAL CELL HYPERPLASIA J. Biol. Chem., June 4, 2004; 279(23): 24745 - 24756. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				R. Hnasko and M. P. Lisanti The Biology of Caveolae: Lessons from Caveolin Knockout Mice and Implications for Human Disease Mol. Interv., December 1, 2003; 3(8): 445 - 464. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				A. W. Cohen, T. P. Combs, P. E. Scherer, and M. P. Lisanti Role of caveolin and caveolae in insulin signaling and diabetes Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, December 1, 2003; 285(6): E1151 - E1160. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				Z. Xie, X. Zeng, T. Waldman, and R. I. Glazer Transformation of Mammary Epithelial Cells by 3-Phosphoinositide- dependent Protein Kinase-1 Activates {beta}-Catenin and c-Myc, and Down-Regulates Caveolin-1 Cancer Res., September 1, 2003; 63(17): 5370 - 5375. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				M. A. Aldred, M. E. Ginn-Pease, C. D. Morrison, A. P. Popkie, O. Gimm, C. Hoang-Vu, U. Krause, H. Dralle, S. M. Jhiang, C. Plass, et al. Caveolin-1 and Caveolin-2,Together with Three Bone Morphogenetic Protein-related Genes, May Encode Novel Tumor Suppressors Down-Regulated in Sporadic Follicular Thyroid Carcinogenesis Cancer Res., June 1, 2003; 63(11): 2864 - 2871. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				F. Capozza, T. M. Williams, W. Schubert, S. McClain, B. Bouzahzah, F. Sotgia, and M. P. Lisanti Absence of Caveolin-1 Sensitizes Mouse Skin to Carcinogen-Induced Epidermal Hyperplasia and Tumor Formation Am. J. Pathol., June 1, 2003; 162(6): 2029 - 2039. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				T. M. Williams, M. W.-C. Cheung, D. S. Park, B. Razani, A. W. Cohen, W. J. Muller, D. Di Vizio, N. G. Chopra, R. G. Pestell, and M. P. Lisanti Loss of Caveolin-1 Gene Expression Accelerates the Development of Dysplastic Mammary Lesions in Tumor-Prone Transgenic Mice Mol. Biol. Cell, March 1, 2003; 14(3): 1027 - 1042. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				A. W. Cohen, D. S. Park, S. E. Woodman, T. M. Williams, M. Chandra, J. Shirani, A. Pereira de Souza, R. N. Kitsis, R. G. Russell, L. M. Weiss, et al. Caveolin-1 null mice develop cardiac hypertrophy with hyperactivation of p42/44 MAP kinase in cardiac fibroblasts Am J Physiol Cell Physiol, February 1, 2003; 284(2): C457 - C474. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				X.-Q. Wang, P. Sun, and A. S. Paller Ganglioside Induces Caveolin-1 Redistribution and Interaction with the Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor J. Biol. Chem., November 27, 2002; 277(49): 47028 - 47034. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				C.-C. Ho, P.-H. Huang, H.-Y. Huang, Y.-H. Chen, P.-C. Yang, and S.-M. Hsu Up-Regulated Caveolin-1 Accentuates the Metastasis Capability of Lung Adenocarcinoma by Inducing Filopodia Formation Am. J. Pathol., November 1, 2002; 161(5): 1647 - 1656. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

H. Lee, D. S. Park, B. Razani, R. G. Russell, R. G. Pestell, and M. P. Lisanti Caveolin-1 Mutations (P132L and Null) and the Pathogenesis of Breast Cancer : Caveolin-1 (P132L) Behaves in a Dominant-Negative Manner and Caveolin-1 (-/-) Null Mice Show Mammary Epithelial Cell