This Article Abstract Full Text (PDF) Alert me when this article is cited Alert me if a correction is posted Services Email this article to a friend Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Citing Articles Citing Articles via HighWire Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Schweizer, P. Articles by Nyström-Lahti, M. Search for Related Content PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Schweizer, P. Articles by Nyström-Lahti, M.

Lack of MSH2 and MSH6 Characterizes Endometrial but not Colon Carcinomas in Hereditary Nonpolyposis Colorectal Cancer¹

Institute of Medical Radiobiology, University of Zürich, 8008 Zürich, Switzerland [P. S., K. T., J. J.]; Departments of Medical Genetics [A-L. M., S. A. K., R. S., P. P.] and Pathology [R. S., J. A.], Haartman Institute, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland; Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Helsinki University Central Hospital, 00290 Helsinki, Finland [R. B.]; Division of Human Cancer Genetics, Comprehensive Cancer Center, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210 [P. P.]; and Division of Genetics, Department of Biosciences [R. V., M. N-L.], University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland

	ABSTRACT

Top ABSTRACT Introduction Materials and Methods Results and Discussion REFERENCES

 
Hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer syndrome is associated with an inherited predisposition to primarily colorectal cancer (CRC) and endometrial cancer (EC); however, the biological basis of the organ involvement remains unknown. As an attempt to explore whether the expression levels of MLH1, MSH2, and MSH6 may play a role, we used immunohistochemistry to study 42 ECs and 35 CRCs from patients carrying the same predisposing mutations. Among MSH2 mutation carriers, MLH1 was expressed in both tumor types, whereas MSH2 and, in many cases, also MSH6, were absent. Remarkably, among MLH1 mutation carriers, 54% of ECs (21 of 39), but none of the CRCs (0 of 32), lacked the MSH2 and/or MSH6 protein in addition to lacking MLH1 protein expression. These results demonstrate a marked difference between hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer-related CRCs and ECs and suggest that the development of the latter tumors is selectively associated with the MSH2/MSH6 protein complex deficiency.

	Introduction

Top ABSTRACT Introduction Materials and Methods Results and Discussion REFERENCES

 
HNPCC³ is characterized by susceptibility to CRC as well as a variety of extracolonic cancers, notably EC. The incidence of EC even exceeds that of CRC (60% and 54%, respectively) in female mutation carriers (1) . The syndrome is linked to germline mutations in DNA mismatch repair genes, mainly MLH1 (50%) or MSH2 (40%; Ref. 2 ).⁴ In a recent investigation, the presence of EC was found to be an independent predictor of a germline mutation of MSH2 or MLH1 in kindreds with colorectal cancer clustering (3) . The risk for EC may vary according to the predisposing mutation. For example, it has been suggested that the lifetime risk of EC is higher in MSH2 mutation carriers as compared with MLH1 mutation carriers (61% versus 42%), whereas the CRC risk is similar (4) . Moreover, 10% of mutations affect MSH6, and these families often display atypical hyperplastic lesions and carcinomas of the endometrium (5 , 6) .⁵ The significance of MSH6 in EC development is emphasized further by observations that a majority of epithelial tumors in Msh6-deficient mice originate from the uterus (and the skin) and only rarely from the intestine (7) . Sporadic tumors with the MSI(+) phenotype have provided an alternative approach to evaluate the involvement of different MMR genes in colorectal and endometrial tumorigenesis. Thus, immunohistochemical studies have shown that most sporadic MSI(+) colorectal cancers arise from MLH1 inactivation, which is mainly attributable to promoter hypermethylation (8 , 9) . Whereas MLH1 promoter hypermethylation and the concomitant lack of expression of this protein occurs in some 15% of sporadic endometrial cancers as well (10) , we are not aware of any large-scale immunohistochemical analyses evaluating the relative involvement of different MMR proteins in sporadic EC tumors.

To clarify the role of MLH1, MSH2, and MSH6 protein expression as possible factors contributing to the HNPCC tumor spectrum, we used immunohistochemistry to compare the expression patterns of these proteins in ECs and CRCs derived from either the same HNPCC patients or close relatives carrying the same mutations. We provide evidence that the development of EC in HNPCC is selectively associated with the MSH2/MSH6 protein complex deficiency.

	Materials and Methods

Top ABSTRACT Introduction Materials and Methods Results and Discussion REFERENCES

 
Tissue Samples.
The tumors were collected from a series of well-characterized HNPCC families segregating germline mutations in either MLH1 or MSH2 (11 , 12) . The mutations and their present designations are as follows. (a) MLH1 mutation 1, 3.5-kb genomic deletion affecting codons 578–632 of exon 16 and flanking intron sequences; mutation 2, ga at 454-1 at the splice acceptor of exon 6; mutation 3, GC at 1975 (codon 659) of exon 17; mutation 4, gc at 1409+1 at splice donor of exon 12; mutation 5, TG at 320 (codon 107) of exon 4; mutation 6, ga at 1039-1 at the splice acceptor of exon 12; mutation 7, gt at 1559-1 at the splice acceptor of exon 14; and mutation 8, CT at 1975 (codon 659) in exon 17; and (b) MSH2 mutation 9, del CA at 1550 (codon 518) of exon 10. The analysis included 42 endometrial cancers (including two cases of atypical hyperplasia, a precursor lesion to endometrial cancer) and 35 colorectal cancers from patients carrying the same predisposing mutations.

Immunohistochemistry.
Immunohistochemical staining for MLH1, MSH2, and MSH6 was performed as described previously (13) . Primary anti-MLH1 antibody (13271A; PharMingen) was incubated with the sections for 1 h, anti-MSH2 antibody (NA26; Calbiochem) for 24 h, and anti-MSH6 antibody (2D4; Serotec; Ref. 14 ) for 2 h at room temperature at concentrations of 1.25 µg/ml, 3 µg/ml, and 5 µg/ml antibody diluent, respectively. The MLH1 and the MSH6 antibodies are mouse monoclonal antibodies that were prepared with full-length human proteins, whereas the MSH2 antibody is a mouse monoclonal antibody generated with an amino terminal fragment of the human MSH2 protein. Normal mucosa showing strong nuclear staining for all three proteins was used as a positive control.

Statistical Analysis.
Fisher’s exact test was used to assess differences between the groups.

	Results and Discussion

Top ABSTRACT Introduction Materials and Methods Results and Discussion REFERENCES

 
In this study, we focused on the expression of MLH1, MSH2, and MSH6 proteins as determinants of the HNPCC tumor spectrum. A particular advantage of the present investigation lies in the fact that it allows a pairwise comparison of colorectal and endometrial cancers from carriers of eight different MLH1 mutations and one MSH2 mutation and includes cases with both cancers originating from the same patients. Detailed results of immunohistochemical analysis are shown in Table 1 . As expected, the gene that was mutated in the germline was always inactivated in the respective tumors. Moreover, among MSH2 mutation carriers (mutation 9) all three CRCs as well as two ECs showed loss of MSH6 (complete or partial), whereas MLH1 was always expressed. Remarkably, among MLH1 mutation carriers (mutations 1–8), loss of MSH2 and/or MSH6 protein (complete or partial) occurred in 19 of 37 cases of endometrial cancer (51%) and in 2 of 2 cases of atypical hyperplasia (100%) as compared with none of 32 colorectal cancers (P = 1.3 x 10^-7; two-tailed Fisher’s exact test). Moreover, among eight pairs of endometrial and colorectal cancers, both originating from the same patients, five ECs but none of the CRCs showed deficient MSH2 and/or MSH6 expression (Table 1 and Fig. 1 ).

View larger version (142K): [in this window] [in a new window] [Download PPT slide]   Fig. 1. Immunohistochemical staining for MLH1, MSH2, and MSH6 proteins in colon and endometrial tissues from an MLH1 mutation carrier (family 43*; see Table 1 ; x250). Normal colonic mucosa in A, B, and C showing MLH1, MSH2, and MSH6 expression (nuclear), respectively. Colon tumor in D, E, and F showing the loss of MLH1 expression but positive (nuclear) staining for MSH2 and MSH6, respectively. Endometrial tumor in G, H, and I showing the loss of MLH1 expression, aberrant cytoplasmic staining for MSH2, and the loss of MSH6 expression, respectively.

The association between MSH2 and MSH6 explains the equal involvement of MSH6 in EC versus CRC from MSH2 germline mutation carriers, whereas the expression patterns in EC and CRC from MLH1 mutation carriers are strikingly different. Our results show that lack of MSH2 and/or MSH6 is associated with the development of endometrial but not colon cancers in carriers of MLH1 mutations, the most frequent cause of HNPCC predisposition (2) . The results in endometrial tumors are broadly consistent with a recent study on a smaller series of MLH1 mutation carriers in which only 5 of 11 endometrial carcinomas and hyperplasias retained both MSH2 and MSH6 (16) . Interestingly, three of the tumors showed a complete loss of MSH6, whereas only one showed a complete loss of MLH1. There are several possible reasons why, in that study, in contrast to ours, the expression of the MLH1 gene that was mutated in the germline was not unequivocally lost in the respective tumors. These include a different anti-MLH1 antibody and a different immunohistochemical method used, as well as different germline mutations studied (the individual mutations were not specified in Ref. 16 ). Because of these essential differences, the results in these two studies are only partly comparable.

Mechanisms that in the tumors from MLH1 germline mutation carriers lead to the lack of MSH2, or to the lack of MSH6 even in the presence of its partner MSH2, remain unknown. As discussed above, unsuccessful heterodimerization may result in at least MSH6 degradation. Additionally, inactivation of MLH1 may induce secondary mutations in MSH2 and, as is well established, in a coding mononucleotide repeat within MSH6 in particular (17) . However, the present investigation showed a poor correlation between the latter mutations and protein expression.⁶ Alternatively, because sporadic cancers with the MSI(+) phenotype often display promoter hypermethylation affecting MLH1 and several other genes (10 , 18) , epigenetic silencing of the individual MMR genes in the somatic target tissues remains as a possibility. Considering the significantly lower frequency of MLH1 promoter hypermethylation in tumors from HNPCC patients as compared with sporadic tumors, as reported previously by us (9) and others (19) , a methylation mechanism may not be highly likely. Moreover, in contrast to MLH1, in vivo studies of human tumors have shown that MSH2 (19) or MSH6 (20) promoters are not generally prone to hypermethylation. The possibility of epigenetic inactivation of MSH6 cannot be totally excluded, however, because—despite unsuccessful attempts to determine directly the methylation status of the MSH6 promoter—a recent in vitro study provided experimental evidence that this gene can be transcriptionally silenced by cytosine methylation (21) .

Taken together, we demonstrate, in a carefully designed comparative analysis, that the lack of MSH2 and/or MSH6 is frequently seen in ECs from MLH1 mutation carriers but is absent in CRCs derived from either the same patients or their close relatives carrying the same mutations. Our findings suggest that the development of the HNPCC-related endometrial tumors is selectively associated with the human MutS deficiency. Further studies are necessary to establish the exact mechanisms of the expression changes and to explore whether, beyond CRC and EC, similar differences characterize other tumors of the HNPCC spectrum.

	ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

 
We thank Ritva Haider and Saila Saarinen for expert technical assistance and Siv Lindroos for sample collection.

	FOOTNOTES

 
The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. This article must therefore be hereby marked advertisement in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.

¹ Supported in part by grants from the Sigrid Juselius Foundation (to M. N-L. and P. P.) and the Swiss National Science Foundation (to P. S. and J. J.), and by the Academy of Finland and the National Institutes of Health Grants CA67941, CA82282, and P30 CA16058 (to P. P.).

² To whom requests for reprints should be addressed, at University of Helsinki, Department of Biosciences, Division of Genetics, P.O. Box 56, Viikinkaari 5, 00014 Helsinki, Finland. Phone: 358-9-19159073; Fax: 358-9-19159079; E-mail: minna.nystrom-lahti{at}helsinki.fi

³ The abbreviations used are: HNPCC, hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer; CRC, colorectal cancer; EC, endometrial cancer; MSI, microsatellite instability; MMR, mismatch repair.

⁴ Internet address: http://www.nfdht.nl.

⁵ Internet address: http://www.nfdht.nl.

⁶ Unpublished data.

Received 11/20/00. Accepted 2/ 8/01.

	REFERENCES

Top ABSTRACT Introduction Materials and Methods Results and Discussion REFERENCES

 

1. Aarnio M., Sankila R., Pukkala E., Salovaara R., Aaltonen L. A., de la Chapelle A., Peltomäki P., Mecklin J-P., Järvinen H. J. Cancer risk in mutation carriers of DNA-mismatch-repair genes. Int. J. Cancer, 81: 214-218, 1999.[Medline]
2. Peltomäki P., Vasen H. F. Mutations predisposing to hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer: database and results of a collaborative study. The International Collaborative Group on Hereditary Nonpolyposis Colorectal Cancer. Gastroenterology, 113: 1146-1158, 1997.[Medline]
3. Wijnen J. T., Vasen H. F., Khan P. M., Zwinderman A. H., van der Klift H., Mulder A., Tops C., Moller P., Fodde R. Clinical findings with implications for genetic testing in families with clustering of colorectal cancer. N. Engl. J. Med., 339: 511-518, 1998.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
4. Vasen H. F. A., Wijnen J. T., Menko F. H., Kleibeuker J. H., Taal B. G., Griffioen G., Nagengast F. M., Meijers-Heijboer E. H., Bertario L., Varesco L., Bisgaard M-L., Mohr J., Fodde R., Meera Khan P. Cancer risk in families with hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer diagnosed by mutation analysis. Gastroenterology, 110: 1020-1027, 1996.[Medline]
5. Miyaki M., Konishi M., Tanaka K., Kikuchi-Yanoshita R., Muraoka M., Yasuno M., Igari T., Koike M., Chiba M., Mori T. Germline mutation of MSH6 as the cause of hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer. Nat. Genet., 17: 271-272, 1997.[Medline]
6. Wijnen J., de Leeuw W., Vasen H., van der Klift H., Moller P., Stormorken A., Meijers-Heijboer H., Lindhout D., Menko F., Vossen S., Möslein G., Tops C., Bröcker-Vriends A., Wu Y., Hofstra R., Sijmons R., Cornelisse C., Morreau H., Fodde R. Familial endometrial cancer in female carriers of MSH6 germline mutations. Nat. Genet., 23: 142-144, 1999.[Medline]
7. de Wind N., Dekker M., Claij N., Jansen L., van Klink Y., Radman M., Riggins G., van der Valk M., van’t Wout K., te Riele H. HNPCC-like cancer predisposition in mice through simultaneous loss of Msh3 and Msh6 mismatch-repair protein functions. Nat. Genet., 23: 359-362, 1999.[Medline]
8. Thibodeau S. N., French A. J., Cunningham J. M., Tester D., Burgart L. J., Roche P. C., McDonnell S. K., Schaid D. J., Vockley C. W., Michels V. V., Farr G. H., Jr., O’Connell M. J. Microsatellite instability in colorectal cancer: different mutator phenotypes and the principal involvement of hMLH1. Cancer Res., 58: 1713-1718, 1998.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
9. Kuismanen S. A., Holmberg M. T., Salovaara R., de la Chapelle A., Peltomäki P. Genetic and epigenetic modification of MLH1 accounts for a major share of microsatellite-unstable colorectal cancers. Am. J. Pathol., 156: 1773-1779, 2000.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
10. Esteller M., Levine R., Baylin S. B., Ellenson L. H., Herman J. G. MLH1 promoter hypermethylation is associated with the microsatellite instability phenotype in sporadic endometrial carcinomas. Oncogene, 17: 2413-2417, 1998.[Medline]
11. Nyström-Lahti M., Wu Y., Moisio A-L., Hofstra R. M., Osinga J., Mecklin J-P., Järvinen H. J., Leisti J., Buys C. H., de la Chapelle A., Peltomäki P. DNA mismatch repair gene mutations in 55 kindreds with verified or putative hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer. Hum. Mol. Genet., 5: 763-769, 1996.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
12. Holmberg M., Kristo P., Chadwicks R. B., Mecklin J-P., Järvinen H. J., de la Chapelle A., Nyström-Lahti M., Peltomäki P. Mutation sharing, predominant involvement of the MLH1 gene and description of four novel mutations in hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer. Hum. Mutat., 11: 482 1998.[Medline]
13. Kuismanen S. A., Holmberg M. T., Salovaara R., Schweizer P., Aaltonen L. A., de la Chapelle A., Nyström-Lahti M., Peltomäki P. Epigenetic phenotypes distinguish microsatellite-stable and -unstable colorectal cancers. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 96: 12661-12666, 1999.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
14. Marra G., Iaccarino I., Lettieri T., Roscilli G., Delmastro P., Jiricny J. Mismatch repair deficiency associated with overexpression of the MSH3 gene. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 95: 8568-8573, 1998.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
15. Chang D. K., Ricciardiello L., Goel A., Chang C. L., Boland R. Steady-state regulation of the human DNA mismatch repair system. J. Biol. Chem., 275: 18424-18431, 2000.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
16. Leeuw W. J. F., Dierssen J. W., Vasen H. F. A., Wijnen J. T., Kenter G. G., Meijers-Heijboer H., Brocker-Vriends A., Stormorken A., Moller P., Menko F., Comelisse C. J., Morreau H. Prediction of a mismatch repair gene defect by microsatellite instability and immunohistochemical analysis in endometrial tumours from HNPCC patients. J. Pathol., 192: 328-335, 2000.[Medline]
17. Malkhosyan S., Rampino N., Yamamoto H., Perucho M. Frameshift mutator mutations. Nature (Lond.), 382: 499-500, 1996.[Medline]
18. Toyota M., Ahuja N., Ohe-Toyota M., Herman J. G., Baylin S. B., Issa J-P. J. CpG island methylator phenotype in colorectal cancer. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 96: 8681-8686, 1999.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
19. Herman J. G., Umar A., Polyak K., Graff J. R., Ahuja N., Issa J-P. J., Markowitz S., Willson J. K. V., Hamilton S. R., Kinzler K. W., Kane M. F., Kolodner R. D., Vogelstein B., Kunkel T. A., Baylin S. B. Incidence and functional consequences of hMLH1 promoter hypermethylation in colorectal carcinoma. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 95: 6870-6875, 1998.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
20. Toyota M., Ohe-Toyota M., Issa J-P.J. De-novo methylation of the borders of the p16 and hMLH1 CpG islands during aging in normal colon. Proc. Am. Assoc. Cancer Res., 41: 76-77, 2000.
21. Bearzatto A., Szadkowski M., Macpherson P., Jiricny J., Karran P. Epigenetic regulation of the MGMT and hMSH6 DNA repair genes in cells resistant to methylating agents. Cancer Res., 60: 3262-3270, 2000.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

This article has been cited by other articles:

				E. M. Grindedal, P. Moller, R. Eeles, A. T. Stormorken, I. M. Bowitz-Lothe, S. M. Landro, N. Clark, R. Kvale, S. Shanley, and L. Maehle Germ-Line Mutations in Mismatch Repair Genes Associated with Prostate Cancer Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev., September 1, 2009; 18(9): 2460 - 2467. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				A.H.S. Gylling, T.T. Nieminen, W.M. Abdel-Rahman, K. Nuorva, M. Juhola, E.I. Joensuu, H.J. Jarvinen, J.-P. Mecklin, M. Aarnio, and P.T. Peltomaki Differential cancer predisposition in Lynch syndrome: insights from molecular analysis of brain and urinary tract tumors Carcinogenesis, July 1, 2008; 29(7): 1351 - 1359. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				E. I. Joensuu, W. M. Abdel-Rahman, M. Ollikainen, S. Ruosaari, S. Knuutila, and P. Peltomaki Epigenetic Signatures of Familial Cancer Are Characteristic of Tumor Type and Family Category Cancer Res., June 15, 2008; 68(12): 4597 - 4605. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				A Gylling, W M Abdel-Rahman, M Juhola, K Nuorva, E Hautala, H J Jarvinen, J-P Mecklin, M Aarnio, and P Peltomaki Is gastric cancer part of the tumour spectrum of hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer? A molecular genetic study Gut, July 1, 2007; 56(7): 926 - 933. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				M. V. Seiden, D. Patel, M. J. O'Neill, and E. Oliva Case 13-2007 -- A 46-Year-Old Woman with Gynecologic and Intestinal Cancers N. Engl. J. Med., April 26, 2007; 356(17): 1760 - 1769. [Full Text] [PDF]

				N. P. Taylor, M. A. Powell, R. K. Gibb, J. S. Rader, P. C. Huettner, S. N. Thibodeau, D. G. Mutch, and P. J. Goodfellow MLH3 Mutation in Endometrial Cancer. Cancer Res., August 1, 2006; 66(15): 7502 - 7508. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				A. T. Stormorken, I. M. Bowitz-Lothe, T. Noren, E. Kure, S. Aase, J. Wijnen, J. Apold, K. Heimdal, and P. Moller Immunohistochemistry Identifies Carriers of Mismatch Repair Gene Defects Causing Hereditary Nonpolyposis Colorectal Cancer J. Clin. Oncol., July 20, 2005; 23(21): 4705 - 4712. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				M. Ollikainen, W. M. Abdel-Rahman, A.-L. Moisio, A. Lindroos, R. Kariola, I. Jarvela, M. Poyhonen, R. Butzow, and P. Peltomaki Molecular Analysis of Familial Endometrial Carcinoma: A Manifestation of Hereditary Nonpolyposis Colorectal Cancer or a Separate Syndrome? J. Clin. Oncol., July 20, 2005; 23(21): 4609 - 4616. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				E. Renkonen, Y. Zhang, H. Lohi, R. Salovaara, W. M. Abdel-Rahman, M. Nilbert, K. Aittomaki, H. J. Jarvinen, J.-P. Mecklin, A. Lindblom, et al. Altered Expression of MLH1, MSH2, and MSH6 in Predisposition to Hereditary Nonpolyposis Colorectal Cancer J. Clin. Oncol., October 1, 2003; 21(19): 3629 - 3637. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				Y. Hendriks, P. Franken, J. W. Dierssen, W. de Leeuw, J. Wijnen, E. Dreef, C. Tops, M. Breuning, A. Brocker-Vriends, H. Vasen, et al. Conventional and Tissue Microarray Immunohistochemical Expression Analysis of Mismatch Repair in Hereditary Colorectal Tumors Am. J. Pathol., February 1, 2003; 162(2): 469 - 477. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				X.-P. Zhou, A. Loukola, R. Salovaara, M. Nystrom-Lahti, P. Peltomaki, A. de la Chapelle, L. A. Aaltonen, and C. Eng PTEN Mutational Spectra, Expression Levels, and Subcellular Localization in Microsatellite Stable and Unstable Colorectal Cancers Am. J. Pathol., August 1, 2002; 161(2): 439 - 447. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				S. A. Kuismanen, A.-L. Moisio, P. Schweizer, K. Truninger, R. Salovaara, J. Arola, R. Butzow, J. Jiricny, M. Nystrom-Lahti, and P. Peltomaki Endometrial and Colorectal Tumors from Patients with Hereditary Nonpolyposis Colon Cancer Display Different Patterns of Microsatellite Instability Am. J. Pathol., June 1, 2002; 160(6): 1953 - 1958. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				R. Kariola, T. E. Raevaara, K. E. Lonnqvist, and M. Nystrom-Lahti Functional analysis of MSH6 mutations linked to kindreds with putative hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer syndrome Hum. Mol. Genet., May 16, 2002; 11(11): 1303 - 1310. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				X.-P. Zhou, S. Kuismanen, M. Nystrom-Lahti, P. Peltomaki, and C. Eng Distinct PTEN mutational spectra in hereditary non-polyposis colon cancer syndrome-related endometrial carcinomas compared to sporadic microsatellite unstable tumors Hum. Mol. Genet., February 1, 2002; 11(4): 445 - 450. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				J. Young, L. A. Simms, K. G. Biden, C. Wynter, V. Whitehall, R. Karamatic, J. George, J. Goldblatt, I. Walpole, S.-A. Robin, et al. Features of Colorectal Cancers with High-Level Microsatellite Instability Occurring in Familial and Sporadic Settings : Parallel Pathways of Tumorigenesis Am. J. Pathol., December 1, 2001; 159(6): 2107 - 2116. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

This Article Abstract Full Text (PDF) Alert me when this article is cited Alert me if a correction is posted Services Email this article to a friend Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Citing Articles Citing Articles via HighWire Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Schweizer, P. Articles by Nyström-Lahti, M. Search for Related Content PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Schweizer, P. Articles by Nyström-Lahti, M.