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Laboratory of Cancer Genetics, Institute of Medical Technology [M. J. L., K. J. S., O. R. S., T. V.] and Department of Urology [T. L. J. T], University of Tampere and Tampere University Hospital, FIN-33014 Tampere, Finland, and Department of Urology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195 [R. L. V.].
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ABSTRACT |
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Introduction |
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Previously, we and others have reported that approximately one-third of prostate carcinomas recurring during endocrine therapy contain an AR gene amplification (4, 5, 6, 7) . Amplification is not found in any untreated prostate tumors, suggesting that the gene amplification is likely to be involved in the failure of the hormonal treatment.
Gene amplification is believed to lead to overexpression of the target gene of amplification (8) . Thus, it has been suggested that amplification of the AR gene could cause overexpression, allowing the cancer cells to continue androgen-dependent growth even in very low levels of androgens left in serum after castration (4 , 9) . Consistent with this hypothesis, up-regulation of AR levels and its transcriptional activity have been observed in LNCaP cells cultured for about 60 passages in androgen-depleted medium (10) . In addition, a preliminary clinical study showed that patients with AR gene amplification responded better to the so-called MAB, which abolishes the effects of adrenal androgens, than patients without the amplification (11) .
Our preliminary data have, indeed, suggested that the AR amplification leads to overexpression of the gene in hormone-refractory prostate tumors (5) . However, this was found by using poorly quantitative mRNA in situ hybridization technique in a small number of tumors. To study further the role of the AR gene in endocrine-treatment failure in prostate cancers, we have here quantified the expression of AR and PSA genes in 54 prostate tumors and 10 prostate cancer xenografts using a real-time RT-PCR system (Light Cycler). The AR gene copy number was determined by FISH. The association of gene expression with gene copy number and tumor type was analyzed.
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Materials and Methods |
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TopABSTRACTIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionREFERENCES |
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RT-PCR.
One to three 20-µm frozen sections were cut using a cryotome. Total RNAs were isolated from the sections using Qiagen RNeasy MiniKit (Qiagen, Inc., Valencia, CA), and used for the first-strand cDNA synthesis with Superscript II reverse transcriptase and oligo d(T)12–18 primer according to the manufacturer’s protocol (Life Technologies, Inc., Gaithersburg, MD). For preparing the standard curve, total RNA from prostate cancer cell line LNCaP (American Type Culture Collection, Manassas, VA), cultured under recommended conditions, was isolated using Trizol reagent (Life Technologies, Inc.) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. After the first strand cDNA synthesis, serial dilutions were made corresponding to about 500, 100, 20, 4, and 0.8 ng of cDNA.
Primers for the AR, PSA, and TBP genes were designed with the assistance of the Primer3 program.4
To avoid amplification of any genomic DNA, the forward and reverse primers for each gene were chosen from different exons. The sizes of PCR products were designed to be under 400 bp to optimize the RT-PCR measurements. Primer and probe sequences for the genes are given in Table 1
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FISH.
The P1-probe for the AR gene (LCG-P1AR) and a pericentromeric alphoid repeat probe for chromosome X (DXZ1) were labeled with digoxigenin-dUTP (Roche Diagnostics) and FITC-dUTP (NEN, Boston, MA), respectively, by nick translation. The dual-color hybridization was done essentially as described previously (4
, 15)
. Briefly, 5 µm freshly frozen tissue sections were fixed with a series of 50, 75, and 100% 3:1 methanol-acetic acid (Carnoy’s fixative). Subsequently, the slides were denatured in a 70% formamide-2x SSC solution (pH 7.0) at 70°C for 3 min and dehydrated in an ascending ethanol series. Hybridization was done overnight at 37°C. After stringent washes, the slides were stained with anti-digoxigenin-rhodamine (Roche Diagnostics) and counterstained with an antifade solution (Vectashied; Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, CA) containing 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole. The FISH signals were scored from nonoverlapping epithelial cells using an Olympus BX50 epifluorescence microscope (Tokyo, Japan). The criteria for amplification were according to the published guidelines (4)
. Briefly, tumors with tight clusters of signals of AR or >2-fold higher numbers of AR than centromeric signals were considered to contain an amplification.
Statistical Analyses.
The association of the gene copy number and tumor type with the expression level was calculated with the nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis test.
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Results |
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TopABSTRACTIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionREFERENCES |
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). In four other xenografts (LuCaP 23.1, 23.8, 23.12, and 70), two copies of the chromosome X centromere, as well as AR, were found. In the remaining four xenografts, one copy of AR and the centromere was detected.
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shows a standard curve of the real-time RT-PCR measurement of AR. The dynamic range was wide, from 0.8 to 500 ng of equivalent total cDNA. The linear relationship between the fractional cycle and the fluorescent threshold was strong (r2 = 
1). In addition to TBP, the expression of ß-actin was measured and used alternatively for normalization in most of the samples (data not shown). The results were similar with both control genes. Because of the potential problems with the ß-actin retropseudogenes, TBP was chosen for normalization in the whole material. Fig. 3A
illustrates the relative expression of AR in BPH as well as in primary and hormone-refractory prostate cancers. All refractory tumors expressed the AR. The median expression was 6-fold higher in hormone-refractory tumors than in primary tumors or BPHs (P < 0.001). The median value of AR expression in the hormone-refractory tumors with the gene amplification was >2 times higher than in the refractory tumors without the amplification. However, the difference was not statistically significant (P = 0.057). The tumor with the highest expression also showed the gene amplification. In the xenografts, there was a clear tendency that the expression of AR increased with the gene copy number (Fig. 4A)
. The LuCaP 49 xenograft did not show expression at all. In addition, clearly the highest expression of AR was observed in the xenograft LuCaP 69, which contained the highest level of AR amplification.
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. Neither was there any statistical significance of association between the expression of PSA and AR copy number in the hormone-refractory tumors. LuCaP 49 did not express PSA at all, whereas LuCaP 23.1, 23.8, and 23.12 expressed about 10 times more PSA than the other xenografts (Fig. 4B)
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Discussion |
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TopABSTRACTIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionREFERENCES |
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We showed that locally recurrent, hormone-refractory prostate tumors expressed significantly more AR than BPHs or hormone-naïve prostate carcinomas. In addition, we did not find any hormone-refractory tumor with low-level expression. All of the tumors also produced the AR protein, as detected by immunohistochemistry (data not shown). The results are somewhat in disagreement with recent data suggesting that a fraction (10–15%) of hormone-refractory metastatic lesions express only low levels of AR because of hypermethylation of the promoter CpG island (23) . The discrepancy could well be attributable to the fact that only locally recurrent tumors, rather than metastases, were analyzed here, or that the number of tumors analyzed was just too low to detect such a small subgroup.
Four of 13 (31%) hormone-refractory tumors contained AR gene amplification, the frequency of the amplification being in accordance with previously published data (4, 5, 6, 7) . The expression of AR seemed to be higher in the tumors with the amplification than in those without the amplification, but the difference was not statistically significant. The tumor clearly showing the highest expression of AR also contained the gene amplification. Still, the amplification explained only a part of the high expression level in the androgen-independent tumors. It seems that other mechanisms than amplification, leading to overexpression of the AR, must also be involved. Altogether, the high level expression of AR in the hormone-refractory tumors underlies the importance of the AR signaling pathway in endocrine therapy failure.
To analyze the functionality of the AR signaling pathway in the hormone-refractory tumors, we measured the expression of PSA, which is androgen-regulated (27) . PSA was clearly expressed in the hormone-refractory tumors, suggesting that AR is functional. The level of mRNA expression was about the same in BPH and hormone-naïve and -refractory tumors. It has earlier been shown that PSA protein expression is actually higher in BPH than in primary tumors (28) . There was no association between AR amplification and PSA expression possible because of the complex regulation of PSA expression. It has actually been suggested that there are also other signaling pathways than AR that regulate the expression of PSA (29) .
One of the most critical problems in studying the progression of prostate cancer has been the lack of good model systems. Of the five commercially available cell lines (PC-3, DU145, LNCaP, MDA-Pca2a, and NIH-H660), only two express AR (LNCaP and MDA-Pca2b). Both of them contain AR mutations (30
, 31)
. In addition, there has been no cell line or xenograft that demonstrates AR gene amplification. Therefore, we screened 10 recently established prostate cancer xenografts derived from eight patients with hormone-refractory prostate cancer. Two of the xenografts contained the amplification. As far as we know, these are the first prostate cancer model systems that were found to have amplification of the AR gene. We have shown previously that the amplified AR gene in hormone refractory tumors is usually of the wild type (5
, 32)
. The fact that neither one of the xenografts contains mutations in the AR gene5
further strengthens their utility for studying the functional consequences of the gene amplification. We analyzed also the expression of AR in the xenografts. All but LuCaP 49 expressed AR. LuCaP 49 represents a rare form of prostate tumors, i.e., small cell carcinomas, and these are known not to express AR (33)
. Interestingly, it seemed that one additional copy of AR was able to increase the expression of the gene, suggesting that even a small increase in gene dosage could have biological significance. We have shown earlier that 20% of locally recurrent prostate carcinomas contain two copies of AR (5)
, which thus may have biological significance. The exact copy number of AR in the cases of amplification (LuCaP 35 and LuCaP 69) could not be evaluated because of the clustering of the signals in the FISH analyses. However, based on the sizes of the clusters, it was evident that LuCaP 69 contained a higher copy number of AR. It also expressed the gene more than the others. All xenografts, except LuCaP 49, expressed AR protein product as detected by immunohistochemistry (data not shown). However, because of the nonquantitative nature of AR immunohistochemistry, only RT-PCR data were used for the comparison of expression levels.
In most of the xenografts, the level of expression of PSA was about the same. LuCaP 49 did not express the gene as was expected from the fact that it is a small cell carcinoma. LuCaP 23.1, LuCaP 23.8, and LuCaP 23.12 expressed more PSA than the others. These three xenografts, derived from a single parental xenograft LuCaP 23, are known to express high levels of PSA (34) . The growth of these xenografts in mice is also very androgen-dependent. Although eight of the xenografts were derived from tumors that were androgen-independent in the patient, they grow as androgen-dependent or -responsive tumors in mice. Castration of the mice decreases the expression of PSA and the volume of the tumors, especially in LuCaP 35 and derivatives of LuCaP 23, but also in LuCaP 23- and 41-bearing mice. In addition, LuCaP 58 and 73 show slower growth in castrated than in intact male mice. LuCaP 23.1, 23.8, 23.12, and 35 eventually become androgen-independent when propagated in castrated mice for longer period of time. The growth of LuCaP 49 is fast and truly androgen-independent in intact mice (34) .6
Mechanisms other than gene amplification that are related to AR and have been suggested to be important in the emergence of androgen-independent prostate cancer, include mutations in the AR and alterations in the coregulators of the AR as well as ligand independence or alternative activation of AR (30 , 31 , 35, 36, 37, 38, 39) . Although, in general, AR mutations seem to be quite rare in hormone-refractory tumors, about 25% of tumors treated with antiandrogens (flutamide) do show specific mutations (35) . Thus, it seems that the treatment selects for the mutations, which alter the transactivational properties of the AR protein. Such mutated forms of AR can be activated by other hormones or antiandrogens (22 , 30 , 35) . In addition, it has been suggested that other signaling pathways, especially HER-2/neu, could activate AR in the presence of low levels of androgens (36 , 38) . In vitro data has also suggested that AR coregulators may alter the transactivational properties of AR (39 , 40) . However, practically nothing is known about the expression of these coregulators in prostate cancer in vivo.
In conclusion, our finding of high-level expression of AR in hormone-refractory tumors support the notion that the AR signaling pathway is important in the emergence of androgen-independent prostate cancer. One key mechanism for the overexpression seems to be gene amplification. As AR has emerged to be a key player in the progression of prostate cancer, the critical issue is whether it could be targeted by novel therapies. Evidently, castration is not enough. Although it seems that MAB is somewhat more beneficial for patients with the amplification than without, neither is it efficient enough (11) . New treatment modalities, based on the high expression of AR in the cancer cells, have been suggested (41 , 42) . The development of such therapies will be boosted by our finding of two model systems containing the gene amplification.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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FOOTNOTES |
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1 This work was supported by the Academy of Finland, the Cancer Society of Finland, the Reino Lahtikari Foundation, the Finnish Cancer Institute, the Medical Research Fund of Tampere University Hospital, the Sigrid Juselius Foundation, and CaP CURE. 
2 To whom requests for reprints should be addressed, at Laboratory of Cancer Genetics, Institute of Medical Technology, FIN-33014, University of Tampere, Tampere, Finland. Phone: 358-3-215-7725; Fax: 358-3-215-8597; E-mail: tapio.visakorpi{at}uta.fi
3 The abbreviations used are: PSA, prostate-specific antigen; AR, androgen receptor; MAB, maximal androgen blockade; FISH, fluorescence in situ hybridization; BPH, benign prostate hyperplasia; TBP, TATA-box binding protein; TURP, transurethral resection, RT-PCR; reverse transcription-PCR.
4 Internet address: http://www-genome.wi.mit.edu/cgi-bin/primer3.www.cgi.
Received 12/21/00. Accepted 3/13/01.
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Z Culig, H Steiner, G Bartsch, and A Hobisch Mechanisms of endocrine therapy-responsive and -unresponsive prostate tumours Endocr. Relat. Cancer, June 1, 2005; 12(2): 229 - 244. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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C.-p. Chuu, R. A. Hiipakka, J. Fukuchi, J. M. Kokontis, and S. Liao Androgen Causes Growth Suppression and Reversion of Androgen-Independent Prostate Cancer Xenografts to an Androgen-Stimulated Phenotype in Athymic Mice Cancer Res., March 15, 2005; 65(6): 2082 - 2084. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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T.-L. Cha, L. Qiu, C.-T. Chen, Y. Wen, and M.-C. Hung Emodin Down-Regulates Androgen Receptor and Inhibits Prostate Cancer Cell Growth Cancer Res., March 15, 2005; 65(6): 2287 - 2295. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. Biroccio and C. Leonetti Telomerase as a new target for the treatment of hormone-refractory prostate cancer Endocr. Relat. Cancer, September 1, 2004; 11(3): 407 - 421. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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H. I Scher, G. Buchanan, W. Gerald, L. M Butler, and W. D Tilley Targeting the androgen receptor: improving outcomes for castration-resistant prostate cancer Endocr. Relat. Cancer, September 1, 2004; 11(3): 459 - 476. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 A. M. Velasco, K. A. Gillis, Y. Li, E. L. Brown, T. M. Sadler, M. Achilleos, L. M. Greenberger, P. Frost, W. Bai, and Y. Zhang Identification and Validation of Novel Androgen-Regulated Genes in Prostate Cancer Endocrinology, August 1, 2004; 145(8): 3913 - 3924. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 S. M. O'Hara, J. G. Moreno, D. R. Zweitzig, S. Gross, L. G. Gomella, and L. W.M.M. Terstappen Multigene Reverse Transcription-PCR Profiling of Circulating Tumor Cells in Hormone-Refractory Prostate Cancer Clin. Chem., May 1, 2004; 50(5): 826 - 835. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 C. A. Heinlein and C. Chang Androgen Receptor in Prostate Cancer Endocr. Rev., April 1, 2004; 25(2): 276 - 308. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. Rahman, H. Miyamoto, and C. Chang Androgen Receptor Coregulators in Prostate Cancer: Mechanisms and Clinical Implications Clin. Cancer Res., April 1, 2004; 10(7): 2208 - 2219. [Full Text] [PDF]
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C. W. Gregory, X. Fei, L. A. Ponguta, B. He, H. M. Bill, F. S. French, and E. M. Wilson Epidermal Growth Factor Increases Coactivation of the Androgen Receptor in Recurrent Prostate Cancer J. Biol. Chem., February 20, 2004; 279(8): 7119 - 7130. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. J. Linja, K. P. Porkka, Z. Kang, K. J. Savinainen, O. A. Janne, T. L. J. Tammela, R. L. Vessella, J. J. Palvimo, and T. Visakorpi Expression of Androgen Receptor Coregulators in Prostate Cancer Clin. Cancer Res., February 1, 2004; 10(3): 1032 - 1040. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. Holzbeierlein, P. Lal, E. LaTulippe, A. Smith, J. Satagopan, L. Zhang, C. Ryan, S. Smith, H. Scher, P. Scardino, et al. Gene Expression Analysis of Human Prostate Carcinoma during Hormonal Therapy Identifies Androgen-Responsive Genes and Mechanisms of Therapy Resistance Am. J. Pathol., January 1, 2004; 164(1): 217 - 227. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. Edwards, N. S. Krishna, C. J. Witton, and J. M. S. Bartlett Gene Amplifications Associated with the Development of Hormone-Resistant Prostate Cancer Clin. Cancer Res., November 1, 2003; 9(14): 5271 - 5281. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 D. K. Lee and C. Chang Expression and Degradation of Androgen Receptor: Mechanism and Clinical Implication J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., September 1, 2003; 88(9): 4043 - 4054. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. M. Henshall, D. E. H. Afar, J. Hiller, L. G. Horvath, D. I. Quinn, K. K. Rasiah, K. Gish, D. Willhite, J. G. Kench, M. Gardiner-Garden, et al. Survival Analysis of Genome-Wide Gene Expression Profiles of Prostate Cancers Identifies New Prognostic Targets of Disease Relapse Cancer Res., July 15, 2003; 63(14): 4196 - 4203. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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I. V. Litvinov, A. M. De Marzo, and J. T. Isaacs Is the Achilles' Heel for Prostate Cancer Therapy a Gain of Function in Androgen Receptor Signaling? J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., July 1, 2003; 88(7): 2972 - 2982. [Full Text] [PDF]
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 R. E. Hill, D. M. de Avila, K. P. Bertrand, N. M. Greenberg, and J. J. Reeves Immunization Against Luteinizing Hormone-Releasing Hormone Fusion Proteins Does Not Decrease Prostate Cancer in the Transgenic Adenocarcinoma Mouse Prostate Model Experimental Biology and Medicine, July 1, 2003; 228(7): 818 - 822. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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R. E. Bakin, D. Gioeli, E. A. Bissonette, and M. J. Weber Attenuation of Ras Signaling Restores Androgen Sensitivity to Hormone-refractory C4-2 Prostate Cancer Cells Cancer Res., April 15, 2003; 63(8): 1975 - 1980. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. Santamaria, P. L. Fernandez, X. Farre, P. Benedit, J. Reventos, J. Morote, R. Paciucci, and T. M. Thomson PTOV-1, a Novel Protein Overexpressed in Prostate Cancer, Shuttles between the Cytoplasm and the Nucleus and Promotes Entry into the S Phase of the Cell Division Cycle Am. J. Pathol., March 1, 2003; 162(3): 897 - 905. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. O. Lee, W. Lou, M. Hou, F. de Miguel, L. Gerber, and A. C. Gao Interleukin-6 Promotes Androgen-independent Growth in LNCaP Human Prostate Cancer Cells Clin. Cancer Res., January 1, 2003; 9(1): 370 - 376. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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E. P. Gelmann Molecular Biology of the Androgen Receptor J. Clin. Oncol., July 1, 2002; 20(13): 3001 - 3015. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. Simard, M. Dumont, P. Soucy, and F. Labrie Perspective: Prostate Cancer Susceptibility Genes Endocrinology, June 1, 2002; 143(6): 2029 - 2040. [Full Text] [PDF]
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C. D. Chen and C. L. Sawyers NF-{kappa}B Activates Prostate-Specific Antigen Expression and Is Upregulated in Androgen-Independent Prostate Cancer Mol. Cell. Biol., April 15, 2002; 22(8): 2862 - 2870. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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X.-B. Shi, A.-H. Ma, L. Xia, H.-J. Kung, and R. W. de Vere White Functional Analysis of 44 Mutant Androgen Receptors from Human Prostate Cancer Cancer Res., March 1, 2002; 62(5): 1496 - 1502. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. J. Savinainen, O. R. Saramaki, M. J. Linja, O. Bratt, T. L. J. Tammela, J. J. Isola, and T. Visakorpi Expression and Gene Copy Number Analysis of ERBB2 Oncogene in Prostate Cancer Am. J. Pathol., January 1, 2002; 160(1): 339 - 345. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. E. Chipuk, S. C. Cornelius, N. J. Pultz, J. S. Jorgensen, M. J. Bonham, S.-J. Kim, and D. Danielpour The Androgen Receptor Represses Transforming Growth Factor-beta Signaling through Interaction with Smad3 J. Biol. Chem., January 4, 2002; 277(2): 1240 - 1248. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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, tumors without the amplification. Median value of expression is shown by a horizontal line. The expression of AR was higher in hormone-refractory prostate carcinomas than in BPH or in the untreated primary carcinomas (P < 0.001). Expression of PSA was about equal in all tumor types.