| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
Experimental Therapeutics |
24RGD in the Treatment of Malignant Gliomas and Its Enhanced Effect with Radiotherapy1
Department of Neurosurgery [M. L. M. L., C. M. F. D., W. P. V.], Division of Gene Therapy/Department Medical Oncology [M. L. M. L., V. W. v. B., H. M. P., W. R. G.], and Department of Radiotherapy [J. v. d. B.], VU University Medical Center, 1007 MB Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Department of Pediatric Oncology and Pharmacology of New Drugs in Oncology, 94205 Gustave Roussy Institute, (UPRES-EA) Villejuif, France [J. G., B. G., G. V.]; Gene Therapy Center, University of Alabama, Birmingham, Alabama 35294 [R. A., D. T. C.]; and Department of Neuro-Oncology M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77030 [J. F.]
 |
ABSTRACT |
|---|
 Top ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
24, which carries a 24-bp deletion in E1A and replicates in cells with a retinoblastoma-defective pathway, produced a strong antitumor effect in glioma. To improve infection efficiency of primary glioma cells, which express low levels of coxsackie adenovirus receptor (CAR), the tropism of Ad24 was expanded toward 
v integrins by insertion of an Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) motif into the fiber knob (Ad5-24RGD). We show that Ad5-24RGD had a stronger oncolytic effect than the non-RGD-expressing variant on a broad panel of primary glioma cells, in particular on those with low CAR expression. The effects of Ad5-24RGD were also assessed on a panel of primary organotypic glioma spheroids. In all cases, Ad5-24RGD strongly decreased the viability of these small tumor nodules in vitro. In s.c. glioblastoma xenografts expressing low levels of CAR, five intratumoral injections of 1 x 107 plaque-forming units Ad5-24RGD resulted in complete tumor regression in 9 of 10 mice and long-term survival in all treated mice. Preclinical evaluations and clinical trials of replication-competent Ad have shown more promising results when combined with conventional therapeutics. Therefore, we assessed the effects of Ad5-24RGD in combination with radiotherapy. Low-dose irradiation before Ad5-24RGD infection decreased viability of glioma cells more effectively than Ad5-24RGD alone with effects ranging from additive to supra-additive. In addition, combination treatment with Ad5-24RGD and irradiation was studied in glioma xenografts. Five injections of 1 x 106 plaque-forming units Ad5-24RGD induced significant tumor growth delay of >119 days compared with untreated controls and led to long-term survival in 6 of 9 mice. When viral treatment was combined with irradiation, tumor regression occurred in all mice resulting in long-term survival without evidence of tumor regrowth in 10 of 10 cases. This study thus provides evidence that Ad5-24RGD has strong antitumor activity in malignant glioma, which can be additionally enhanced by irradiation such that the same therapeutic effect is achieved when a 10-fold lower viral dose is applied. These results support further development of Ad5-24RGD in combination with radiation therapy for treatment of these highly malignant tumors. |
INTRODUCTION |
|---|
|
TopABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
This has led to the application of replication-competent viruses, with specificity for proliferating or malignant cells, that spread within the tumor and amplify the therapeutic effect (1 , 2) . This approach is particularly appealing for application in the central nervous system where the tumor cells proliferate amid surrounding normal brain of which the cells are essentially quiescent. Several mutants of herpes simplex virus type I were shown to replicate selectively in dividing cells (3) . Ad3 has also emerged as a virus that can be engineered to have oncolytic properties. One strategy to engineer such conditionally replicative adenoviruses (CRAds) is by partial or complete deletion of viral genes that are dispensable in tumor cells only. The first CRAd developed by this paradigm, known as ONYX-015 or dl1520, carries a deletion in the E1B-55kDa coding region that introduces selectivity for tumors with dysfunctional p53 (4) . Promising preclinical results led to rapid translation to clinical trials for head and neck cancer, pancreas carcinomas, and recently a trial for malignant glioma (NABTT-9701) was initiated (5) .
A second promising type of CRAd, known as Ad24 or dl922-947, carries of a partial deletion in the CR2 domain of the adenoviral E1A gene that abrogates the binding of E1A to pRb. The selectivity of these Ad mutants for tumor cells was demonstrated previously (6
, 7)
. Abnormalities of the pRb and p53 pathways have been frequently documented in gliomas (8)
, and therefore both the E1B55k-deleted and E1A-mutated CRAds are expected to replicate well in these tumors.
The efficacy of these oncolytic agents, however, may be compromised by their limited infection efficiency on gliomas as it has been demonstrated that these tumors express low levels of the primary Ad receptor CAR (9
, 10)
. Insertion of the RGD sequence, known to interact with v integrins, into the Ad fiber knob was found to strongly enhance glioma cell infection (10)
. Recently, it was demonstrated that combining this strategy with the Ad24 CRAd led to strong oncolytic effects in lung adenocarcinoma, prostate cancer, and ovarian cancer cells (11
, 12)
.
Evidence from preclinical and clinical trials suggests that combining replication-competent Ads with standard anticancer treatments such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy results in greater therapeutic benefit (13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18) . For glioma, radiotherapy is a standard treatment with demonstrated therapeutic efficacy. Interestingly, additive and even synergistic oncolytic effects on malignant glioma have been found when oncolytic viruses were combined with radiation treatment (19 , 20) .
In this study, the effect of the RGD insertion on the oncolytic activity of Ad24 was assessed on a broad panel of primary glioma cells. Moreover, the efficacy of Ad5-24RGD was established in a three-dimensional structure of primary organotypic spheroids and confirmed in vivo in s.c. xenografts. Finally, we present in vitro and in vivo evidence that combined treatment with irradiation potentiates the oncolytic activity of Ad5-24RGD in malignant glioma.
|
MATERIALS AND METHODS |
|---|
|
TopABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
. All cells were cultured in DMEM supplemented with 10% FCS and antibiotics (Life Technologies, Inc., Paisley, United Kingdom).
|
24RGD oncolytic activity.
Recombinant Ads.
A recombinant E1-deleted Ad expressing the luciferase reporter gene under the CMV promoter, AdCMVLuc, was provided by Dr. Robert D. Gerard (University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX). Ad24 was constructed using a pXC1 (Microbix Biosystems) derivative, pXC1-24, carrying a 24-bp deletion in the pRb-binding CR2 domain in E1A as described previously (6)
. Homologous recombination in 293 cells between pXC1-24 and pBHG11 (Microbix Biosystems) led to the formation of Ad24. Ad5-24RGD was constructed as described previously (11)
. Briefly, the E1 region from pXC1-24 was cloned into ClaI-digested pVK503, an E3-containing rescue plasmid with the RGD-4C modification in the fiber. The virus genome was released by digestion with PacI and transfected into 293 cells to rescue Ad5-24RGD.
AdCMVLuc was propagated on 293 cells; Ad24 and Ad5-24RGD were propagated on A549 cells. Viruses were purified using cesium chloride gradient banding according to standard techniques and titered in parallel by end point dilution titration on 293 cells.
In Vitro Cytotoxicity Assay.
Panels of glioma cell lines or primary cell cultures were seeded in triplicate or quadruplet in 96-well plates at 5 x 103 cells/well. For in vitro studies with irradiation, cells were irradiated with an 80-kV orthovolt X-ray source (Pantak Therapax SXT 150). Ad infection was performed in DMEM containing 2.5% FCS, which was replaced by culture medium after 1 h. Cell survival was assessed using WST-1 as described by the manufacturer (Sigma, St. Louis, MO). Survival is expressed as a percentage of control uninfected cells.
Primary spheroids were infected with 5 x 107 pfu AdCMVLuc or Ad5-24RGD (8–12 spheroids/group), and viability was assessed by WST-1 assay 12 days after infection.
Flow Cytometry.
Cells were immunolabeled with either anti-CAR monoclonal antibody RmcB (25)
or with anti-vß3 integrin or anti-vß5 integrin monoclonal antibodies (Chemicon International, Temecula, CA), followed by FITC-conjugated rabbit antimouse antibody (DAKO, Glostrup, Denmark). Negative controls lacked the first antibody. Analysis was performed on a FACScan (Beckton-Dickinson, Erembodegem-Aalst, Belgium). Expression was quantified as the relative median fluorescence intensity compared with the negative control.
In Vivo Antitumor Efficacy.
In vivo antitumor activity was evaluated in s.c. human malignant glioma xenografts derived from a primary tumor, IGRG121, as described previously (22)
. For each experiment, IGRG121 tumor fragments were transplanted into female SPF-Swiss nude mice. Animals bearing tumors of 150–250 mm3 were pooled and randomly assigned to each treatment group. Total body irradiation (TBI) was performed on day 0 at a dose of 5 Gy (maximum-tolerated dose). X-rays were delivered under a tension of 225 kV and 17 mA using a Philips RT250. After 7 h, the first of five daily intra-tumoral virus or PBS injections was administered. Each day, Ad5-24RGD was administered at a dose of 107 pfu (single treatment experiment) or 106 pfu (combined treatment experiment) in 50 µl of PBS. Different sites of the tumor were chosen for each injection and controls were injected with PBS. Two tumor diameters perpendicular to each other were measured three times weekly, and tumor volume was calculated according to the following equation: v (mm3) = width2 (mm2) x length (mm)/2. The experiments lasted until tumor volumes reached 1500–2000 mm3 or until 120 days.
Immunohistochemistry.
Immunohistochemical staining for Ad hexon protein was performed on paraffin-embedded tissue sections using goat anti-Ad hexon antibody 1056 (Chemicon International) as described previously (22)
. Sections were counterstained with Mayer’s hematoxylin.
Statistical Analysis.
Statistical analysis of Ad5-24RGD efficacy in vitro was performed by use of the two-tailed Student’s t test. For the in vivo experiments, statistical significance between treatment groups and controls in their time to reach five times initial tumor volume was estimated by the two-tailed nonparametric Mann-Whitney test for the single treatment experiment and by Kruskal-Wallis test for the combined treatment experiment. Tumor regression was described using standard terminology, including TGD, CR (total tumor regression or tumor volume < 15 mm3 on at least two consecutive measurements), PR (>50% decrease in tumor volume on at least two consecutive measurements), LTSs (alive at 120 days after treatment without increased initial tumor size), and tumor-free survivors (complete responders at 120 days after treatment).
|
RESULTS |
|---|
|
TopABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
24 Efficacy.vß3, and vß5 expression levels. The results presented in Fig. 1
confirm the reported low levels of CAR expression in gliomas because 6 of 10 primary cell cultures tested were CAR negative. In contrast, all primary cells displayed high levels of at least one of the integrins tested (data not shown). Therefore, increased efficacy was expected of CRAds targeted toward integrins. To test this hypothesis, U118MG, U373MG, and the same panel of primary glioma cells were infected with Ad24 or Ad5-24RGD. As shown in Fig. 1B
, Ad5-24RGD was found to be significantly more oncolytic than Ad24 in U118MG and in 6 of 10 primary cell cultures. When comparing these results to the data presented in Fig. 1A
, it is apparent that tumors low in CAR expression were significantly more sensitive to the oncolytic effect of Ad5-24RGD than to Ad24. Conversely, when CAR was highly expressed, the cell kill by the integrin-targeted Ad5-24RGD was not significantly increased compared with Ad24.
|
24RGD in an Organotypic Spheroid Model.24RGD in an in vitro model for solid tumors. Primary OMSs represent an excellent model to study in vitro interactions between virus and tumor in a three-dimensional structure (26)
. OMS prepared from tumor material of six different glioma resections were infected with 5 x 107 pfu Ad5-24RGD or control nonreplicating virus AdCMVLuc. During the course of the experiment, a clear cytopathic effect could be observed at the periphery of the spheroids. Whereas the edge of the spheroids infected with a nononcolytic virus remained sharp with attached cells, the Ad5-24RGD-infected spheroids lost their spherical shape with cells rounding up and detaching from the spheroid (Fig. 2A)
. Viability 12 days after infection was found to be significantly decreased by Ad5-24RGD treatment (Fig. 2B)
, demonstrating the potent antitumor activity of this agent in a solid tumor mass.
|
24RGD in Vivo.24RGD in vivo, a human glioma xenograft model was used. The xenograft was derived from primary malignant glioma and expressed low levels of CAR. Treatment at an advanced tumor stage with 107 pfu Ad5-24RGD for 5 consecutive days resulted in significant TGD of >117 days compared with untreated controls (five times initial tumor volume at 9.1 days; Fig. 3
). Nine of 10 animals experienced complete tumor response and survived tumor-free at 4 months (Table 2)
. One animal experiencing partial tumor response, which did not regrow thereafter, also survived 4 months. Histological analysis of this tumor revealed a completely calcified tumor remnant without any viable cells.
|
|
24RGD in Combination with Irradiation in Vitro.24RGD and irradiation on a panel of glioma cell lines, receiving a dose of 3-Gy irradiation before infection with Ad5-24RGD at 1 pfu/cell (Fig. 4A)
. In all cell lines tested, we found a significant potentiating effect of irradiation on the oncolytic activity of Ad5-24RGD. In 2 of 5 cell lines (U118MG and SF-763), the cytotoxicity of the two modalities displayed supra-additive effects. Using the same experimental conditions on a panel of primary glioma cell cultures again demonstrated a significant potentiating effect of irradiation on Ad5-24RGD-induced oncolysis (Fig. 4B)
. In 4 of 7 cell cultures, these effects were supra-additive.
|
24RGD in Combination with Irradiation in Vivo.24RGD in combination with radiotherapy were assessed on IGRG121 xenografts (Fig. 5)
. To be able to demonstrate additive or even synergistic effects, we used one tenth of the Ad5-24RGD dose that was effective in the single treatment experiment. Mice bearing s.c. tumors received either 5 Gy TBI, intra-tumoral injections of 106 pfu Ad5-24RGD for 5 consecutive days, or the combination of both treatments. Five Gy TBI induced a nonsignificant TGD of 13.8 days compared with untreated controls. Injection of 106 pfu Ad5-24RGD for 5 days induced significant TGD of >119 days compared with untreated controls. One of 9 animals experienced CR and 5 of 9 experienced PR. These 6 animals were LTSs. When the viral injections were combined with irradiation, 10 of 10 animals experienced tumor regression (5 PR and 5 CR) and all survived without regrowth of tumors 4 months after treatment (Table 2)
.
|
. Immunohistochemistry for hexon Ad capsid protein revealed the presence of viral replication throughout the tumor, in particular surrounding necrotic areas (Fig. 6B)
.
|
. This indicated that although the size of the tumor remnants of these LTSs did not meet the requirements of CR, these animals may be considered as cured. No obvious histological differences were detected between the tumor residuals treated with Ad5-24RGD alone or Ad5-24RGD in combination with irradiation. |
DISCUSSION |
|---|
|
TopABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
24 has been demonstrated to efficiently replicate in and lyse glioma cells, whereas quiescent cells were resistant to Ad24-induced cell lysis (6)
. Nevertheless, in vivo efficacy may be limited by various factors. First, Ad entry into tumor cells could be inefficient because of lack of CAR expression (9)
. Second, oncolysis of the tumor may be insufficient because of a reduced intrinsic oncolytic potential of the CRAd or as a result of host immune response. Therefore, we have sought to improve the potential of oncolytic viral treatment in the context of malignant glioma by enhancing Ad24 infectivity by targeting to v integrins, which are highly expressed on intracranial tumors (27
, 28)
, and by combining this virus with irradiation. Previously, we demonstrated that replication-deficient Ad vectors, genetically modified to express the RGD peptide in the fiber knob (29) enhance gene transfer into glioma cells by up to 50-fold compared with non-RGD vectors (10) . On a panel of glioma cell lines and primary cell cultures, we now demonstrate that the increased infection efficiency of RGD-targeted vectors can be translated into increased oncolysis by CRAds. Interestingly, the extent of increased oncolytic activity was directly and inversely correlated to the level of CAR expression.
Recently, we described the validity of using the organotypic spheroid model for studying Ad infection and spread in a three-dimensional structure in vitro (26)
. Infection of OMS prepared from glioma tissue with Ad5-24RGD demonstrated the oncolytic potential of this virus in a solid tumor mass. By 12 days after infection, viability of the spheroids was strongly reduced relative to controls. These results could be confirmed in vivo, where Ad5-24RGD treatment led to complete tumor regression and long-term survival in all treated animals bearing a human glioblastoma tumor with low CAR expression. The powerful cytopathic action of Ad5-24RGD on broad panels of primary cell cultures and spheroids, as well as in xenografts, suggests a therapeutic potential for treatment of malignant glioma. However, it should be taken into account that clinical trials using replication-competent viral vectors have to date only demonstrated significant therapeutic efficacy when combined with conventional therapeutics (30)
. For combination studies in malignant glioma, radiotherapy is the treatment of choice, considering its demonstrated therapeutic efficacy. In vitro experiments on a broad panel of glioma cell lines and primary cell cultures demonstrated the potentiating and even supra-additive effects of irradiation on Ad5-24RGD-induced cytotoxicity.
These findings were corroborated by the enhanced antitumor activity with combination treatment of glioblastoma xenografts in vivo. The synergy observed between Ad5-24RGD and radiotherapy is a phenomenon that was also observed with other CRAds, including the E1B-deleted ONYX-015 (16)
and the prostate-specific antigen promoter-driven CV706 (17
, 18)
. This suggests that the type of viral genome modifications that are introduced to achieve tumor selectivity does not influence the underlying mechanisms leading to synergistic anticancer activity. It has been suggested that irradiation creates an environment that is more conductive to Ad infection or replication (31)
. Whereas increased viral replication after irradiation has been described for replication-competent herpes viruses (19
, 32)
, two studies on combination treatment of ONYX-015 and irradiation reported no significant effects of irradiation on the amount of virus produced in vitro or in vivo (16)
.4
However, it cannot be excluded that irradiation accelerates lysis of infected cells, allowing earlier release of progeny virus. This would enhance viral spreading and improve clinical efficacy because immune responses to the Ad allow only for a short time span of replication.
Perhaps the main advantage of combined treatment is the fact that lower viral doses are required to achieve a certain therapeutic effect. This is demonstrated by the results from the two animal experiments. Irradiation enhanced Ad5-24RGD antitumor activity, such that a 10-fold lower viral dose achieved the same therapeutic response. This is an important finding given the fact that sufficient Ad delivery to tumors remains one of the major hurdles in clinical viral (gene) therapy strategies. Furthermore, combined treatment allowing lower viral doses may also lower toxic side effects.
Finally, combination therapy using cytotoxic agents with differing mechanisms of action is an attractive approach to treatment of malignant glioma. It allows cell kill by specific selectivity of each agent, resulting in broader spectrum of oncolytic action. This broader spectrum of oncolysis is expected to be particularly more efficacious in tumors with strong heterogeneity, a hallmark of glioblastoma multiforme. We conclude that the results presented support further development of Ad5-24RGD in combination with radiotherapy for treatment of these highly malignant tumors.
|
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
|---|
24RGD. |
FOOTNOTES |
|---|
1 Supported by Dutch Cancer Society Grant VU2002-2594, the Spinoza Award from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (to H. M. P.), the Pasman Foundation, a fellowship of the Federation Nationale des Centres de Lutte Contre le Cancer (to J. G.), a fellowship of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (to V. W. v. B.), and a bilateral exchange grant from ZonMW/Inserm (to J. G., V. W. v. B.). 
2 To whom requests for reprints should be addressed, at Division of Gene Therapy/Department of Neurosurgery VU University Medical Center, P. O. Box 7057, 1007 MB Amsterdam, the Netherlands. E-mail: M.Lamfers{at}vumc.nl
3 The abbreviations used are: Ad, adenovirus; CRAd, conditionally replicative adenovirus; RGD, Arg-Gly-Asp; CMV, cytomegalovirus; Luc, luciferase; pfu, plaque-forming unit; TGD, tumor growth delay; CR, complete regression; PR, partial regression; LTS, long-term survivor; OMS, organotypic multicellular spheroid; RT, radiation therapy; GBM, glioblastoma multiforme; HES, hematoxylin eosin safranin; TBI, total body irradiation.
Received 5/28/02. Accepted 8/20/02.
|
REFERENCES |
|---|
|
TopABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
(v)ß3 and (v)ß5 integrin expression in meningiomas. Neurosurgery (Baltimore), 47: 1185-1195, 2000.[Medline]
This article has been cited by other articles:
|
|
 |
|
  D. A. Reardon, K. L. Fink, T. Mikkelsen, T. F. Cloughesy, A. O'Neill, S. Plotkin, M. Glantz, P. Ravin, J. J. Raizer, K. M. Rich, et al. Randomized Phase II Study of Cilengitide, an Integrin-Targeting Arginine-Glycine-Aspartic Acid Peptide, in Recurrent Glioblastoma Multiforme J. Clin. Oncol., December 1, 2008; 26(34): 5610 - 5617. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 M. L.M. Lamfers, S. Idema, L. Bosscher, S. Heukelom, S. Moeniralm, I. H. van der Meulen-Muileman, R. M. Overmeer, P. van der Valk, V. W. van Beusechem, W. R. Gerritsen, et al. Differential Effects of Combined Ad5-{Delta}24RGD and Radiation Therapy in In vitro versus In vivo Models of Malignant Glioma Clin. Cancer Res., December 15, 2007; 13(24): 7451 - 7458. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. Liu, J. N. Sarkaria, C. A. Petell, G. Paraskevakou, P. J. Zollman, M. Schroeder, B. Carlson, P. A. Decker, W. Wu, C. D. James, et al. Combination of Measles Virus Virotherapy and Radiation Therapy Has Synergistic Activity in the Treatment of Glioblastoma Multiforme Clin. Cancer Res., December 1, 2007; 13(23): 7155 - 7165. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 W. J. Van Houdt, H. Wu, J. N. Glasgow, M. L. Lamfers, C. M. Dirven, G. Y. Gillespie, D. T. Curiel, and Y. S. Haviv Gene delivery into malignant glioma by infectivity-enhanced adenovirus: In vivo versus in vitro models Neuro-oncol, July 1, 2007; 9(3): 280 - 290. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 M. A. Tyler, I. V. Ulasov, A. Borovjagin, A. M. Sonabend, A. Khramtsov, Y. Han, P. Dent, P. B. Fisher, D. T. Curiel, and M. S. Lesniak Enhanced transduction of malignant glioma with a double targeted Ad5/3-RGD fiber-modified adenovirus. Mol. Cancer Ther., September 1, 2006; 5(9): 2408 - 2416. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 H. Ito, H. Aoki, F. Kuhnel, Y. Kondo, S. Kubicka, T. Wirth, E. Iwado, A. Iwamaru, K. Fujiwara, K. R. Hess, et al. Autophagic cell death of malignant glioma cells induced by a conditionally replicating adenovirus. J Natl Cancer Inst, May 3, 2006; 98(9): 625 - 636. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. Gomez-Manzano, M. M. Alonso, W.K. A. Yung, F. McCormick, D. T. Curiel, F. F. Lang, H. Jiang, B. N. Bekele, X. Zhou, R. Alemany, et al. Delta-24 Increases the Expression and Activity of Topoisomerase I and Enhances the Antiglioma Effect of Irinotecan Clin. Cancer Res., January 15, 2006; 12(2): 556 - 562. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
T. O. Kirby, A. Rivera, D. Rein, M. Wang, I. Ulasov, M. Breidenbach, M. Kataram, J. L. Contreras, C. Krumdieck, M. Yamamoto, et al. A Novel Ex vivo Model System for Evaluation of Conditionally Replicative Adenoviruses Therapeutic Efficacy and Toxicity Clin. Cancer Res., December 15, 2004; 10(24): 8697 - 8703. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 M. A. I. Abou El Hassan, I. van der Meulen-Muileman, S. Abbas, and F. A. E. Kruyt Conditionally Replicating Adenoviruses Kill Tumor Cells via a Basic Apoptotic Machinery-Independent Mechanism That Resembles Necrosis-Like Programmed Cell Death J. Virol., November 15, 2004; 78(22): 12243 - 12251. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 B. Geoerger, G. Vassal, P. Opolon, C. M. F. Dirven, J. Morizet, L. Laudani, J. Grill, G. Giaccone, W. P. Vandertop, W. R. Gerritsen, et al. Oncolytic Activity of p53-Expressing Conditionally Replicative Adenovirus Ad{Delta}24-p53 against Human Malignant Glioma Cancer Res., August 15, 2004; 64(16): 5753 - 5759. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
R. L. Chu, D. E. Post, F. R. Khuri, and E. G. Van Meir Use of Replicating Oncolytic Adenoviruses in Combination Therapy for Cancer Clin. Cancer Res., August 15, 2004; 10(16): 5299 - 5312. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 C. Gomez-Manzano, W.K. A. Yung, R. Alemany, and J. Fueyo Genetically modified adenoviruses against gliomas: From bench to bedside Neurology, August 10, 2004; 63(3): 418 - 426. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. M. Witlox, V. W. van Beusechem, B. Molenaar, H. Bras, G. R. Schaap, R. Alemany, D. T. Curiel, H. M. Pinedo, P. I. J. M. Wuisman, and W. R. Gerritsen Conditionally Replicative Adenovirus with Tropism Expanded towards Integrins Inhibits Osteosarcoma Tumor Growth in Vitro and in Vivo Clin. Cancer Res., January 1, 2004; 10(1): 61 - 67. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. Cascallo, G. Capella, A. Mazo, and R. Alemany Ras-dependent Oncolysis with an Adenovirus VAI Mutant Cancer Res., September 1, 2003; 63(17): 5544 - 5550. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
| Cancer Research | Clinical Cancer Research |
| Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention | Molecular Cancer Therapeutics |
| Molecular Cancer Research | Cancer Prevention Research |
| Cancer Prevention Journals Portal | Cancer Reviews Online |
| Annual Meeting Education Book | Meeting Abstracts Online |
, indicates supra-additive effects of the combination treatment.
