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Experimental Therapeutics |
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee 38105 [E. Y. K., N. F. K., W. E. E.]; University of Tennessee, Memphis, Tennessee 38163 [E. Y. K., N. F. K., W. E. E.]; and San Raffaele Scientific Insitute, via Olgettina 58, 20132 Milano, Italy [M. E. B.]
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ABSTRACT |
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 Top ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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INTRODUCTION |
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TopABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Treatment of cells with DNA-reactive compounds (e.g., cisplatin) or structural analogs of DNA precursors (e.g., cytarabine, fludarabine, and thiopurines) results in growth arrest and apoptosis (2, 3, 4) . Although major components of the apoptotic machinery have been elucidated, the molecular interaction between damaged DNA and cellular processes that initiate apoptosis remain obscure. Recent studies demonstrated that distinct structural elements of damaged DNA provide the sites for binding of DNA damage-recognizing proteins and subsequent assembly of multiprotein complexes, which normally maintain the integrity and fidelity of genetic information (4, 5, 6) . The postreplicative MMR3 system is another example of protein complexes involved in recognition of DNA damage after anticancer therapy, and the binding of MMR proteins to modified DNA has been shown in in vitro experiments (7 , 8) .
Cytotoxic effect of thiopurines, a class of widely used antileukemic agents (9)
, is achieved through a common mechanism that exploits the conversion of these drugs into deoxythioguanosine triphosphate, with subsequent incorporation into DNA (8
, 10
, 11)
. In contrast to 
-irradiation, such incorporation induces local structural changes in DNA (12)
rather than destroy its integrity and affects DNA-protein interactions, including topoisomerase II and RNase H (13
, 14)
. This mechanism may also contribute to the association of thiopurine treatment with an increased risk of therapy-related leukemia or brain tumors, when thiopurines are used concurrently with topoisomerase II inhibitors or irradiation (15
, 16)
.
MMR proteins have been demonstrated to modulate thiopurine cytotoxicity, and the loss of MMR activity can confer a resistance phenotype to thiopurine treatment (17) . However, several human and murine cells deficient in MSH2, a key component of MMR, demonstrated high sensitivity to anticancer drugs, including thiopurines (13 , 18) . These paradoxical observations indicate the existence of complementary biochemical pathways that activate cell death in response to DNA damage in MMR-deficient cells.
To further understand the mechanisms by which thiopurines exert their cytotoxic effects, we investigated how incorporation of thiopurines into DNA is recognized by cellular machinery in human MSH2-deficient acute lymphoblast leukemia cells. Characterization of this process and identification of sensor proteins in these cells will provide new insights into the determinants of drug sensitivity in cancer cells and may facilitate the development of more effective and less toxic anticancer regimens. Here we present new findings indicating that DNA surveillance mechanisms identify chemical modification of DNA by detecting nonnatural nucleosides with an HMGB1-containing multiprotein complex. Furthermore, we report the isolation and identification of components of a nuclear multiprotein complex that has high affinity to duplex DNA modified by incorporation of dGS, ara-C, or 5FdU and show that murine fibroblasts deficient in one component of the complex, Hmgb1, are 10-fold more resistant to thiopurine treatment than their wild-type counterparts.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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TopABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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19 h. The number and viability of the cells were determined in duplicate by trypan-blue exclusion, using a Burker-Turk chamber. In all experiments, the initial concentration of cells was 0.25 x 106/ml. A single dose of 6-MP, which was dissolved in medium, was added to the culture medium so that the final concentration was 10 µM (determined by measurement of the absorbance of the medium; wavelength, 320 nm; extinction coefficient, 19,600). Cytotoxicity was expressed as the ratio of the number of viable cells incubated with MP (i.e., cell count x percentage of viable cells) to the number of viable cells in the control medium, which lacked MP (i.e., cell count x percentage of viable cells). Nuclear extracts were prepared according to the method of Dignam et al. (19)
Protein concentration was determined by Bradford dye-binding procedure using Bio-Rad Protein assay (Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA).
Cell Cycle Synchronization.
Nalm6 cells were seeded at a concentration of 1 x 106/ml in complete RPMI 1640 that contained 2 mM thymidine (Sigma, St. Louis, MO). The culture was then incubated at 37°C for 16 h. Cells were washed twice with PBS and centrifuged at 500 x g for 10 min at room temperature. Cells were resuspended in 200 ml of RPMI 1640, and 2 h after the removal of thymidine, MP was added to 20 ml of the cell suspension so that the final concentration of the drug was 10 µM.
DNA Modification.
The level of dGS incorporation into DNA after MP treatment was determined by high-performance liquid chromatography analysis by methods we have previously described in detail (13)
.
Cell Cycle Analysis, TUNEL Assay, and Caspase Activation Assay.
For cell cycle analysis, cells were centrifuged and resuspended at a concentration of 1 x 106/ml in a PI staining solution (0.05 mg/ml PI, 0.1% sodium citrate, 0.1% Triton X-100). Each sample was treated with DNase-free RNase (5 ng/ml; Calbiochem, San Diego, CA) at room temperature for 30 min, filtered through 40-µm mesh, and analyzed by a FACScan flow cytometer (Becton Dickinson, San Jose, CA) collecting the fluorescence (wavelength range, 563–607 nm) from PI-bound DNA (15,000 cells). The percentages of cells within each phase of the cell cycle were computed by using ModFit software (Verity Software House, Topsham, ME).
For TUNEL analysis of apoptosis, 1 x 106-3 x 106 fixed cells were end labeled with brominated dUTP (BD Biosciences, San Jose, CA) by using TdT (Roche Diagnostics, Indianapolis, IN). The samples were then incubated with FITC-conjugated anti-BrdUrd monoclonal antibody (BD Biosciences) for 1 h at room temperature. After cellular DNA was counterstained with PI, the cells were treated with RNase and analyzed by a FACS Calibur flow cytometer (Becton Dickinson). Matched aliquots of each sample were treated identically, except one aliquot of each pair was not incubated with TdT during the end-labeling procedure. Thus, aliquots that lacked TdT served as an internal negative control for FITC fluorescence of each sample. Cells exhibiting FITC fluorescence greater than background levels were classified as apoptotic.
For assays of caspase activation, 3 x 105 cells were incubated with the caspase inhibitor FAM-VAD-FMK according to the manufacturer’s protocol (CaspaTag Fluorescein Caspase Activity Kit; Intergen, Purchase, NY) to stain activated caspases 1 through 9. After the cells were counterstained with PI, they were analyzed by a FACS Calibur instrument (Becton Dickinson).
Synthesis of Duplex DNA.
The synthesis of modified oligodeoxyribonucleotides containing dGS was accomplished by standard phosphoramidite chemical methods with S6-DNP-dG-CE phosphoramidite (13)
. Oligodeoxyribonucleotides containing ara-C and 5FdU were synthesized and purified by TriLink Biotechnologies (San Diego, CA). The 5' ends of the single-stranded oligodeoxyribonucleotides were radiolabeled by using the RTS T4 Kinase Labeling System (Life Technologies, Inc., Gaithersburg, MD). Sequences of the oligodeoxyribonucleotide duplexes are shown in Table 1
. Oligodeoxyribonucleotide duplexes were prepared by annealing complementary single strands and were purified by nondenaturing gel electrophoresis (12% polyacrylamide gel) at 4°C as previously described (13)
or by Fast Protein Liquid Chromatography using a Superdex 75 column (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech, Piscataway, NJ).
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Radioactive fractions corresponding to the DNA-protein complex were electroeluted from the gel and analyzed in a 7.5% SDS-polyacrylamide gel. The bands containing the proteins of interest were excised from the gel, and the proteins were digested with trypsin and subsequently identified by mass spectroscopy, which was performed by Protana (Odense, Denmark).
Immunological Methods.
Polyclonal rabbit antibodies against human HMGB1 and HMGB2 (PharMingen, San Diego, CA) were used at a dilution of 1:5000 and 1:200, respectively, for Western blot analysis. Polyclonal rabbit antibody against the keyhole limpet hemocyanin-coupled peptide 491–505 of ERp60 (SwissProt no. P30101) was raised and affinity-purified by Rockland, Inc. (Gilbertsville, PA), and used at a 1:5000 dilution. Polyclonal goat anti-HSC70 antibody (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Santa Cruz, CA) was used at a 1:100 dilution. Monoclonal antibody to GAPDH (MAB 374; Chemicon, Temecula, CA) was used at a dilution of 1:500. Secondary horseradish peroxidase-conjugated antibodies were used at dilutions ranging from 1:5000 to 1:10,000. The ECL-Plus Western blotting detection system (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech) was used to detect antibodies bound to the Western blots.
EMSA-Western Blot Analysis.
After completion of EMSA electrophoresis in nondenaturing conditions as described in a preceding section, the proteins were transferred to a Hybond-P membrane (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech) under which a sheet of DE-81 paper (Whatman, Maidstone, England) was placed, as described previously (20)
. After electrotransfer, the membrane was incubated with the antibodies to the proteins that comprised the dGS-DNA-indexing complex. Bound antibodies were detected by using secondary antibodies and the ECL-Plus kit (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech). The radiolabeled DNA bound to the DE-8l paper was detected by exposing the dried paper in a PhosphorImager cassette. For Western analysis of proteins in supershift experiments, radioactive bands were excised, incubated at 70°C for 30 min in NuPage LDS Sample buffer (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA), and the supernatant was loaded on the SDS-containing gel.
Immunoprecipitation.
The anti-HMGB1 antibody (300 µg) was cross-linked to protein G conjugated to Sepharose (Pierce, Rockford, IL). This complex was used with the Seize X Mammalian Immunoprecipitation kit (Pierce) to immunoprecipitate cellular or nuclear proteins from Nalm6 cell (50 mg of cells). Immobilization of antibody, loading of the cell lysate, and washing was performed according to manufacturer’s instructions. Eluted proteins were further separated using 4–12% NuPage Bis-Tris gel in MES buffer (Invitrogen). After electrophoresis, the proteins were transferred to a PVDF membrane for Western blot analysis.
MTT Cytotoxicity Assays.
Fibroblast cell lines deficient and proficient in Hmgb1 expression were generated as described previously (21)
. Thiopurine cytotoxicity was determined using the MTT assay after incubation of C1 (Hmgb1-/-) and VA1 (Hmgb1+/+) cells with MP or vincristine for 3–6 days (22)
. Thiopurines were dissolved in DMEM without fetal bovine serum, and the drug concentration was determined spectrophotometrically, as described earlier (8)
. The IC50s were obtained by fitting a sigmoid Emax model to the cell viability versus drug concentration data, determined in triplicate.
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RESULTS |
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and were no longer synchronized by the end of the second cell cycle. When Nalm6 cells were treated with 10 µM MP (IC50 = 3.7 ± 0.8 µM after 48 h), 2 h after the block was released, cells progressed through the cell cycle during the first 18 h after the addition of MP (Fig. 1A
, 18 h). After beginning the second cell cycle, additional progression of treated cells ceased, and arrest occurred during S phase (Fig. 1A
, 34 h).
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. Consistent with this finding, FACScan analysis demonstrated activation of caspases in 20% of MP-treated cells, compared with 4% in untreated cells (Fig. 1C)
. Caspase activation occurred simultaneously with accumulation of cells in S phase and the increase of sub-G1 fraction (up to 14–17%) in synchronized Nalm6 cells treated with MP. Interestingly, both accumulation of DNA strand breaks and caspase activation took place only after treated cells entered S phase of the second cycle (Figs. 1, A–C
and 2A
).
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. dGS incorporation (0.06%, about one dGS/1700 dG) was detected in MP-treated cells after completion of the first cycle and increased to 0.4% during the second cycle (one dGS/250 dG; Fig. 2C
), consistent with our previous findings in unsynchronized cells (13)
. The level of dGS incorporated into DNA increased during the second cycle of cell division in parallel with the relative number of cells in S-phase, also showing that DNA synthesis was not abrogated (Fig. 2, A–C)
.
High Affinity of Nuclear Proteins to dGS-DNA Duplex.
High affinity of nuclear extract proteins from mismatch-deficient lymphoblastic cells to dGS-DNA was demonstrated by EMSA experiments with 34-mer oligo duplexes. Titration of the complex with a competitor oligo duplex that had the identical sequence, except contained only natural nucleosides, demonstrated stability of the complex in the presence of 4–5-fold excess of competitor (Fig. 3, A and B)
. Further addition of competitor resulted in a decrease of the radiolabeled complex because of displacement of the labeled dGS-DNA duplex from the complex with nonlabeled competitor. Therefore, subsequent EMSA experiments were performed in the presence of 5-fold excess of nonradioactive competitor. An increase of the protein concentration in the reaction mix led to a linear increase of band intensity, further confirming the specificity of complex formation (Fig. 3, C and D)
.
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) containing one modified base, was isolated from Nalm6 nuclear extract by EMSA electrophoresis (Fig. 4A)
. Analysis by SDS-PAGE revealed that the complex contained four or five major proteins (Fig. 4B)
. Mass spectroscopy established that the protein with a molecular mass of 70 kDa was human HSC70 (SwissProt no. P11142; total coverage: 389/646 amino acids, 60%; average mass, 71,126); the protein with a molecular mass of 58 kDa was the putative ERp60 (SwissProt no. P30101; total coverage: 225/505 amino acids, 45%; average mass, 57,182); the protein with molecular mass of 25 kDa was human HMG protein 1 HMGB1 (SwissProt no. P09429; total coverage: 109/214 amino acids, 51%; average mass, 24,933); the protein with a molecular mass of 23 kDa was human HMGB2 (SwissProt no. P26583; total coverage: 145/208 amino acids, 70%; average mass 24,073); and the protein with a molecular mass of 37 kDa was GAPDH (SwissProt no. P04406; total coverage: 77/334 amino acids, 23%; average mass, 36,093). Identification of GAPDH as a component of the complex corroborates our earlier findings obtained by NH2-terminal sequencing (8)
.
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, Lanes 1 and 2); and anti-GAPDH antibody abrogated formation of the complex, as reported earlier (8)
. Treatment with antibodies to HMGB2, ERp60, and HSC70 did not change mobility of the complex in EMSA.
In a separate set of EMSA experiments, the radioactive band formed after the treatment of the reaction mixture with anti-HMGB1 antibody (Fig. 4A
, Lane 2, top band) was excised and subjected to Western blot analysis. The presence of HMGB2, GAPDH, and HSC70 proteins in the excised (supershift) band was confirmed based on immunoreactivity to the antibodies and molecular weights of the proteins, as depicted in Fig. 4C
. We were unable to unambiguously identify ERp60 in this band because of cross-reactivity of the secondary antibody to anti-HMGB1 antibody and anti-ERp60 antibody. Identities of the major components of the dGS-DNA-protein complex (HMGB1, HMGB2, HSC70, ERp60, GAPDH) were also confirmed by Western analysis after the transfer of the proteins from the EMSA gel onto a PVDF membrane, with the radiolabeled oligonucleotide duplex retained on the ion-exchange paper underlying the PVDF membrane (data not shown).
Coimmunoprecipitation experiments were performed using anti-HMGB1 antibody. HMGB1 was isolated from the nuclear extract of untreated Nalm6 cells by affinity chromatography using anti-HMGB1 antibody immobilized on protein G-conjugated Sepharose. Western blot analysis of the bound proteins showed that three components of the complex (i.e., HMGB2, ERp60, HSC70) coimmunoprecipitated with HMGB1 (Fig. 5
, Lanes 2–5). We did not detect GAPDH in the coimmunoprecipitated fraction.
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resulted in protein binding similar to that observed when the extract was incubated with dGS-containing DNA duplexes (Fig. 6A
, Lanes 7 and 9). Again, addition of anti-HMGB1 antibody to the reaction mixture resulted in supershift of the complex, suggesting that the same complex was involved in the binding of dGS-, araC-, and 5FdU-containing oligonucleotide duplexes (Fig. 6A
, Lanes 8 and 10). Comparison of band intensities indicated that the protein complex has 4–5-fold greater affinity for chemically modified oligonucleotide duplexes than for duplex DNA containing only natural nucleosides (Fig. 6B)
.
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10-fold more resistant to MP treatment, compared with Hmgb1+/+ fibroblasts (IC50C1 = 8.9 ± 0.7 µM and IC50VA1 = 0.78 ± 0.11 µM, P = 0.0001; Fig. 7
). In contrast, C1 (Hmgb1-/-) and VA1 (Hmgb1+/+) cells demonstrated similar viability after 5 days of incubation with vincristine (IC50C1 = 0.28 ± 0.032 µM; IC50VA1 = 0.39 ± 0.094 µM), a cytotoxic antileukemic agent that is not incorporated into DNA.
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DISCUSSION |
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TopABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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-2'-deoxythioguanosine, and ß-2'-deoxythioguanosine form a tight cluster when grouped according to their activity or gene expression profiles in 60 sensitive and resistant human cancer cell lines, implying that thiopurines have a similar molecular mechanism of cytotoxicity (11)
. Although the MMR system was shown to be an important determinant of thiopurine sensitivity in several types of cells (17)
, our prior studies have shown that MMR-deficient human leukemia cells can be highly sensitive to thiopurine treatment (8
, 13)
. This observation led to our current studies to elucidate alternative mechanisms by which cells respond to the DNA modification after thiopurine treatment. To this end, we used nuclear extracts from human leukemia cells (i.e., Nalm6) that are highly sensitive to thiopurines (IC50 = 3.7 ± 0.8 µM after 48 h exposure to MP) but do not have detectable levels of MSH2 or MSH6, essential components of the MMR system (8)
.
Treated cells progressed successfully through G2-M of the first cell cycle and G1 phase of the second cell cycle, without cycle arrest (Fig. 1)
. During the second cell cycle, additional dGS was incorporated into DNA, a result consistent with formation and accumulation of deoxythioguanosine triphosphate within cells (23)
and with continued DNA synthesis. As Fig. 1
and 2, A and B
, depict, thiopurine metabolites neither inhibit DNA replication nor activate checkpoints that determine entrance into S phase. Moreover, DNA synthesis was not abrogated, as evidenced by the incorporation of BrdUrd and dGS into DNA (Fig. 2, B and C)
. However, thiopurine-treated cells did not progress beyond the second S phase and did not accomplish duplication of DNA (Fig. 1
, 34 h +MP).
Interestingly, apoptotic changes in MP-treated cells became prominent only during the second S phase, after incorporation of dGS into DNA. Both activation of caspases and accumulation of DNA breaks occurred, indicating activation of the apoptotic cascade in the second cell cycle (Fig. 1, B and C)
. These results are consistent with earlier findings in nonhuman CHO and L1210 cell lines, which demonstrated accumulation of DNA breaks in the second cycle after thiopurine treatment (24
, 25)
. The fact that initiation of apoptosis occurs in the second S phase after the incorporation of dGS into DNA suggests existence of cycle-specific mechanism(s) that are sensitive to such DNA modification.
On the basis of the above findings in MMR-deficient cells, we hypothesized that chemically modified DNA with dGS-inserts must be a substrate for a protein(s) that recognizes DNA distortion rather than formation of specific mispairs. Formation of DNA-protein complex with such altered DNA may be considered as the initial step toward activation of DNA repair or apoptosis (26, 27, 28) . Structural analysis of dGS-containing duplex DNA has demonstrated local changes in geometry and dynamics of the double helix around the site of dGS incorporation (12) , without loss of structural integrity of the DNA duplex. Thus, the protein(s) recognizing dGS-modified DNA is detecting relatively modest and localized changes in DNA structure.
Synthetic DNA duplexes containing nonnatural nucleosides provide a useful tool to characterize cellular components sensitive to DNA modification (29)
. We used a similar approach to identify cellular components sensitive to chemical modifications that do not affect integrity of DNA. In contrast to incorporation of 2', 2'-difluorodeoxycitidine into DNA (29)
, dGS does not cause cessation of DNA strand elongation. Therefore, to characterize and isolate the protein complex interacting with dGS-modified DNA, we performed EMSA using synthetic oligonucleotide duplexes containing thioguanine base-paired with cytosine or thymine in the central position of the duplex (Table 1)
. Titration experiments demonstrated that in the presence of 4–5-fold excess of the nonmodified oligo duplex, dGS-DNA remained bound with the identified nuclear complex, demonstrating higher affinity of these nuclear proteins to modified DNA (Fig. 3, A and B)
. Selectivity for modified DNA is also demonstrated by preferential complex formation with oligo duplexes containing nonnatural nucleoside inserts (Fig. 6)
.
In this study, we demonstrated that the nuclear complex, which recognizes nonnatural nucleosides incorporated into DNA, contains HMGB1, HMGB2, HSC70, ERp60, and GAPDH proteins and binds dGS-modified DNA with substantially (4–5-fold) higher affinity than DNA containing only natural nucleotides. Coimmunoprecipitation of HMGB1 with three components of the complex from nuclear extracts of untreated cells (Fig. 5)
indicates that these proteins interact in the absence of drug challenge, rather than assemble subsequent to DNA modification. Moreover, a similar DNA-protein complex is formed in the presence of oligonucleotide duplexes modified by incorporation of two other chemically distinct nonnatural nucleosides, araC and 5FdU (Table 1)
, as evidenced by supershift experiments in the presence of polyclonal rabbit anti-HMGB1 antibody (Fig. 6)
. Thus, three nonnatural nucleoside analogs (dGS, araC, and 5FdU) create DNA lesions that are recognized by this complex, indicating that this multiprotein complex may be a general sensor of DNA that has been modified by incorporation of structurally distinct nonnatural nucleosides.
HMGB1 and HMGB2 are abundant proteins localized in the nucleus (30
, 31)
, and ERp60, a member of the large protein disulfide isomerase family, is localized in the nucleus and cytosol (32)
. Two components of the complex, a multifunctional protein GAPDH, (33)
and HSC70, which is associated with the nuclear matrix (34)
, shuttle into the nucleus after stress, e.g., thiopurine treatment (8)
. All of the identified proteins in the complex have protein-protein binding properties and participate in the formation of homo- or heterocomplexes, and four of five proteins (HMGB1/2, ERp60, and GAPDH) have known DNA-binding properties (30
, 32
, 33
, 35)
. Among the components of this complex, it is most likely that HMGB1 and HMGB2 are involved in direct binding with modified DNA. Although these proteins do not reveal sequence specificity, they have increased affinity to cruciform DNA, B-Z DNA junction (30)
and DNA modified with cisplatin, an anticancer agent that significantly changes DNA geometry (36
, 37)
. HMGB1/2 proteins contain two similar tandem HMG-box domains A and B, organized in a characteristic L-shape consisting of three -helices and are capable of introducing bends into DNA (30)
. It is plausible that dGS incorporation facilitates the ability of DNA to acquire a bent conformation when bound to HMGB1/2 proteins. Because destabilizing alterations within the structure decrease DNA rigidity (38)
, we speculate that HMGB1/2 binding to flexible regions in DNA could provide a common mechanism for active scanning of DNA damage. HMG proteins are considered architectural regulators of transcription; therefore, DNA modifications that increase DNA binding of HMGB1/2 may initiate a stress response through transcriptional activation. Also, HMG functional motifs are hypothesized to play a major role in facilitating the orderly progression of many DNA-related activities, including replication, recombination, and repair (31)
.
To substantiate the hypothesis about involvement of HMGB1 into DNA stress response, we determined thiopurine sensitivity in immortalized fibroblast cell lines derived from Hmgb1-deficient and -proficient murine embryos (21)
. Fibroblasts lacking Hmgb1 were 10-fold more resistant (higher IC50) to MP (Fig. 7)
but demonstrated similar sensitivity to vincristine, an antileukemic agent that is cytotoxic by arresting cell mitosis rather than incorporation into DNA (39)
. The direct interaction of HMGB1-containing protein complex with dGS-DNA, coupled with the lower sensitivity in Hmgb1-/- cells suggests that the HMGB1-containing complex plays an important role in cellular response to chemical modification of DNA. Recently, HMGB1 was shown to associate with the nuclei in apoptotic cells, indicating that during apoptosis, chromatin undergoes some chemical or structural transition that makes it susceptible to HMGB1 binding (40)
. Elucidation of the details of HMGB1 interactions with its various partners has considerable therapeutic potential (41)
. Investigation of the interactions between HMGB1, HMGB2, and DNA containing different nonnucleoside analogs, as well as the interactions between HMGB1 and its protein partners (HMGB2, HSC70, Erp60 and GAPDH), is ongoing in our lab.
Identification of a new multiprotein nuclear complex and its role in cell sensitivity to thiopurines in MMR-deficient cells opens new insights to a heretofore unrecognized cellular response to incorporation of nonnatural nucleosides into DNA. These findings provide the foundation for future studies to elucidate the function of individual components of this complex and their role in determining the sensitivity of cells to anticancer agents that exert their effects via incorporation into DNA. An important future direction will be to determine whether this multiprotein complex is the initial sensor of DNA modification that provides the primary pro-apoptotic signal in response to incorporation of nonnatural nucleosides in DNA.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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FOOTNOTES |
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1 This work was supported, in part, by Grant R37 CA36401 from the National Institutes of Health, Cancer Center Support Grant CA 21765, and by the American Lebanese Syrian Associated Charities. 
2 To whom requests for reprints should be addressed, at St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, 332 North Lauderdale Street, Memphis, TN 38105-2794. Phone: (901) 495-3663; Fax: (901) 525-6869; E-mail: william.evans{at}stjude.org
3 The abbreviations used are as follows: MMR, mismatch repair; MP, mercaptopurine; dGS, 2'-deoxy-6-thioguanosine; PI, propidium iodide; TdT, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase; TUNEL, Tdt-mediated nick end labeling; BrdUrd, bromodeoxyuridine; ara-C, 1-ß-D-arabinofuranosylcytosine; 5FdU, 5-fluoro-2'-deoxyuridine; EMSA, electrophoretic mobility shift assay; HSC70, heat shock cognate protein 70; ERp60, protein disulfide isomerase; MTT, 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide; PVDF, polyvinylidene difluoride; HMGB1, high mobility group protein B1; HMGB2, high mobility group protein B2; GAPDH, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase.
Received 2/12/02. Accepted 10/30/02.
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N. F. Krynetskaia, T. L. Brenner, E. Y. Krynetski, W. Du, J. C. Panetta, P. Ching-Hon, and W. E. Evans Msh2 Deficiency Attenuates But Does Not Abolish Thiopurine Hematopoietic Toxicity in Msh2-/- Mice Mol. Pharmacol., August 1, 2003; 64(2): 456 - 465. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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depicts controls (no MP treatment); 
, after MP treatment. C, fraction of synchronized cells that contain activated caspases after treatment with MP, as determined by flow cytometry using FAM-VAD-FMK as the substrate (see "Materials and Methods"). 
represents untreated (control) synchronized cells; 
, C1 cells; 
, VA1 cells. Each point represents the results of three parallel experiments (mean ± SE). In contrast, Hmgb1-/- cells were not more resistant to vincristine (see "Results").