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[Cancer Research 63, 6144-6148, October 1, 2003]
© 2003 American Association for Cancer Research

Advances in Brief

Inhibition of the Translocated c-myc in Burkitt’s Lymphoma by a PNA Complementary to the Eµ Enhancer1

Giovanna Cutrona2, Elisabetta M. Carpaneto, Anna Ponzanelli, Massimo Ulivi, Enrico Millo, Sonia Scarfì, Silvio Roncella, Umberto Benatti, Lidia C. Boffa and Manlio Ferrarini

Division of Medical Oncology C [G. C., A. P., S. R., M. F.] and Laboratory of Epigenetics [L. C. B., E. M. C.], National Cancer Research Institute, IST, Genoa; Department of Oncology, Biology and Genetics, University of Genoa 16132 Genoa [G. C., M. F.]; TIB MolBiol s.r.l., 16132 Genoa [M. U.]; Center of Excellence for Biomedical Research, 16132 Genoa [E. M., S. S., U. B.]; and Division of Pathology, Sant’Andrea Hospital, 19100 La Spezia [S. R.], Italy


   ABSTRACT
Top
 ABSTRACT
Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results and Discussion
 REFERENCES
 
In Burkitt’s Lymphoma there is an up-regulation of the c-myc oncogene caused by its translocation from chromosome 8 to chromosome 14, often close to the Eµ enhancer of the immunoglobulin heavy chain locus (IgH). In Burkitt’s Lymphoma cells, a peptide nucleic acid complementary for a specific unique Eµintronic sequence selectively blocked the expression of the c-myc oncogene under Eµ control but not of other c-myc alleles. This Peptide Nucleic Acid also inhibited IgM expression in B cells. The finding that PNAs specific for a regulatory noncoding sequence can block gene expression has important conceptual and practical implications.


   Introduction
Top
 ABSTRACT
 Introduction
Materials and Methods
 Results and Discussion
 REFERENCES
 
PNAs3 are nucleic acid analogues where the natural backbone is substituted with uncharged pseudopeptidic 2-aminethylglycine units (1 , 2) . PNAs are resistant to nucleases and proteases and bind with high affinity and specificity to complementary RNA and DNA. Moreover, PNAs can invade duplex DNA and hybridize with complementary sequences successfully displacing the natural cDNA strand (1, 2, 3, 4) . Because of these properties, PNAs have been used as antisense or anti-gene reagents in a number of experimental systems (1 , 2 , 5 , 6) . Unfortunately, PNAs enter the cells by endocytosis but are sequestered in the endosomal compartment before they can reach the cell nucleus (3) . In previous in vitro studies, this problem was overcome by linking a NLS to PNAs, which facilitates nuclear localization (2, 3, 4, 5, 6) . BL in three cells with a translocated and up-regulated c-myc oncogene were treated in vitro with a PNA specific for the second exon of the c-myc oncogene (PNAmycwt) linked to a NLS. In these conditions, there was a rapid down-regulation of c-myc and a consequent inhibition of two functions controlled by the c-myc itself: proliferation and apoptosis (3) . However, because a PNA complementary to a coding DNA sequence can block the expression of both the translocated oncogene and the proto-oncogene also active in normal cells, some toxicity resulting from inhibition of the normal proto-oncogenes was to be expected if PNAmyc was to be used for therapeutic purposes. Therefore, a new strategy aimed at selectively inhibiting the expression of the translocated c-myc was needed.

In BL cells, the translocation of c-myc from chromosome 8 causes its juxtaposition to the Ig loci on chromosome 14 or less frequently on chromosome 2 or 22 (7) . The Ig locus on chromosome 14 is a complex structure comprised of groups of different V, D, J and CH gene segments. After recombination in ontogeny, a unique VDJ-CH gene structure, which encodes the complete IgH chain, is formed (8) in the single mature B cells. Regulatory elements are positioned within the IgH chain locus, the most relevant being the Eµ intronic enhancer (Eµ) between JH and Cµ and the 3' IgH locus elements downstream the C gene loci (9) . Eµ contributes to VDJ recombination, switch recombination, and H chain gene transcription (10, 11, 12) . Although all of the Eµ structures contribute to the regulation of these phenomena, a limited number of sites are necessary to guarantee the enhancer functions (13) . These motifs, named µA, µB, µC in humans, bind to the Ets-1, PU.1, AML-1 factors, respectively (13) , and are generally referred in their overall as minimal or core Eµ. In BL, because of the t(8;14) translocation, the c-myc oncogene is positioned near the Eµ intronic enhancer sequence (7) , and the proximity of the Eµ enhancer is believed to be responsible for the up-regulation of c-myc expression (7 , 9 , 14) . On the basis of these premises, we tried to determine whether the binding of specific PNAs to the Eµ core sequences would cause selective down-regulation of the translocated c-myc while leaving unaffected the expression of the c-myc genes not under Eµ influence (13) .


   Materials and Methods
Top
 ABSTRACT
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
Results and Discussion
 REFERENCES
 
PNA Synthesis.
PNAs were manually synthesized under license of PerSeptive Biosystem using solid-phase peptide synthesis by Boc chemistry. First, the peptidic NLS (PKKKRKV) was synthesized followed by the PNA sequence portion. All compounds were purified by reverse phase high-performance chromatography on a Shimadzu LC-9A preparative high-performance chromatography equipped with a Waters X18µ Bondapack column (19 x 300). Mass spectra of each compound were obtained in the positive ion mode using a single quadrupole mass spectrometer HP Engine 5989-A equipped with an electrospray ion source and confirmed by electrospray iontrap mass spectrometry.

A PNA unique and complementary to the 3'-5' strand of the Eµ sequence that encompasses the µA and µC elements was synthesized [PNAEµwt; GenBank accession no. X00253.1, bases 136–157: GCAGGAAGCAGGTCACCG-NLS]. Other PNAs included: PNAEµscr, CAGTCGGCAGCGGACAAG-NLS; PNAEµmut, (GCAGGAAGCAAGTCACCG-NLS1mut; GCAGGGAGCAAGTCACCG-NLS2mut; by PDTC, Rockefeller University, New York, NY); GTAGGAAGTAGGTCATCG-NLS3mut; PNAEµcomp, CGGTGACCTGCTTCCTGC-NLS. A c-myc anti-gene PNA (PNAmycwt) (GenBank accession no. X00364, bases 4528–4544, II exon TCAACGTTAGCTTCACC-NLS) as well as PNAmycmut, TTAACGCTAGCTTTACC-NLS were synthesized as reported previously (3) . None of the PNAs matched any known human gene sequence.

Cell Cultures.
Two BL cell lines (BRG and RAMOS) and an EBV carrying B-cell line (Cor3) were used, originated, and kept in culture as described previously (3) . PNAs (stock solution 1 mM in H2O) were added directly to the culture medium (RPMI 1640; Seromed-Biochrom KG, Berlin, DE) at a 10 µM final concentration that was found to be optimal in titration tests (Ref. 3 and data not shown).

EMSA Analysis.
The 32P end-labeled oligonucleotide Eµ DNA probe (TIBMolbiol s.r.l., Genoa, Italy) was incubated with or without 10 µg of nucleoprotein extract from EBV-positive Cor3 lymphoblastoid B-cell line in the presence of 1 µg of poly(dI-dC)·(dI-dC) (Sigma-Aldrich), 200 mM NaCl, and 20% glycerol for 15' at room temperature. The reactions were resolved on a polyacrylamide gel. EMSA was also run in the presence of cold µA and µC DNA competitors (10 µM, 30 µM, 100 µM, and 1 mM) or of different concentration (1, 3, 10, and 30 µM) of the PNAs. Supershift EMSAs were carried out by incubating 32P-labeled oligonucleotide Eµ DNA alone or with nuclear extracts in the absence or in the presence of antibodies specific for Ets-1 and AML-1 (respectively, N-276: sc-111 and N-20: sc-8563; Santa Cruz Biotechnology Inc., Santa Cruz, CA). An irrelevant anti-NFKB p50 antibody was used as negative control (H-119: sc-7178; Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc.).

Run-Off Transcription Assay.
Newly transcribed c-myc mRNA was quantified by run-off transcription assays as described previously (3 , 15) .

Cultured BRG and RAMOS cells were resuspended at 108 cells/ml in 200 µl aliquots in the presence of RNA Guard (500 units; Amersham-Pharmacia Biosciences, NJ) and permeabilized by addition of lysolecithin (Sigma-Aldrich). Equal cell aliquots were exposed to the various PNAs or to medium alone for 30' at 37°C. ATP, CTP, GTP, and subsequently [{alpha}32P] UTP (Amersham-Pharmacia Biotech, I) were added. Transcription was allowed to proceed for 30' at 37°C. Total [{alpha}32P] RNA was purified from each sample (16) and hybridized to filters where the DNA probes (custom made by TIBMolbiol s.r.l) for c-myc (bases 4831–4860, GenBank accession no. X00364), G3PDH (bases 633–662, GenBank accession no. NM_002046), and Ig µ chain (bases 451–480, GenBank accession no. M 28074) were slot-blotted and cross-linked. The amount of newly transcribed c-myc, µ chain, and G3PDH mRNAs in each sample was autoradiographically detected and analyzed.

Northern Blot.
The RNA was purified from cells cultured with PNAs for 18 h as previously reported (3) , size separated on an agarose-formaldehyde gel, transferred to Hybond TM -N + nylon membrane (Amersham, UK), hybridized with [32P]-GTP random primed-labeled probes (kit; Boehringer Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany), and autoradiographed. The c-myc probe used was a 1.5-kb DNA fragment containing the II myc exon (Amprobe; Amersham, UK). The ß-actin probe was cloned by reverse transcription-PCR from a noncorrelated cell line (ß-actin AN X00351; PCR primers: base 2334, 5'-CTCACCCTGAAGTACCCCATCG-3'; base 1097, 5'-CTTGCTGATCCACATCTGCTGG-3'). The c-myc mRNA was expressed as percentage of the unsusceptible ß-actin gene specific activities.

Western Blot.
Western blot analysis was performed on purified nuclear proteins as described previously (3) . Briefly, total cellular proteins were solubilized in urea lysis buffer electrophoretically separated on acrylamide SDS gels and then transferred to a nitrocellulose membrane (Hybond C-extra; Amersham). The membrane was stained with anti-myc antibody (9E10; Calbiochem, San Diego, CA) or anti-H2B antibody (FL-126: sc-10808; Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc.) followed by an alkaline phosphatase-conjugated goat antirabbit IgG (Sigma). MYC concentrations (from triplicate experiments) were expressed as ratio to the histone H2B protein.

Evaluation of Cell Growth, Cell Cycle, and Apoptosis.
The variations in the growth curves of cell lines treated with PNAs was determined by cell counts (3) . Cell cycle analysis was performed by PI staining in hypotonic solution and flow cytometry (FACSort; Becton-Dickinson, San Jose, CA; Ref. 3 ). Cell viability was evaluated by PI staining of intact cells in isotonic solution followed by flow cytometry (3) .

BRG and RAMOS cells were incubated with different PNAs or medium for 12 h and exposed to a F(ab')2 fragment of a rabbit antibody specific for human IgM({alpha}-µAb) coupled to polyacrylamide beads (Irvine Scientific, Santa Ana, CA) as previously reported (5) or to a F(ab')2 of an irrelevant antibody (data not shown). The cells were cultured for an additional 48 h, and apoptosis induced by cross-linking of surface IgM was evaluated by PI staining of cells nuclei in hypotonic solution and flow cytometry (17) .


   Results and Discussion
Top
 ABSTRACT
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results and Discussion
REFERENCES
 
Inhibition of the Binding of Nuclear Factors to DNA by PNAs.
The capacity of specific PNAs of inhibiting the binding of nuclear factors to the Eµ DNA sequence was investigated by a gel shift assay. Fig. 1Citation shows a typical experiment and also illustrates the schematic structure of the Eµ sequence as well as the binding sites of the majors nuclear factors (Fig. 1A)Citation . We used a DNA probe differing from the genomic sequences by the boxed bases in Fig. 1BCitation . This figure also reports the cold DNA competitors used for inhibition experiments. Although all of the DNAs used were in the double-stranded conformation, only the 5'-3' sequence is depicted. The figure also shows two PNAs complementary to the double-stranded DNA of the Eµ minimal enhancer: PNAEµwt complementary to the 3'-5' and PNAEµcomp complementary to 5'-3' strand. Fig. 1CCitation demonstrates that the addition of nuclear extracts from the lymphoblastoid cell line Cor3 caused a shift in the radiolabelled 32P EµDNA probe in the gel assay (Fig. 1CCitation , Lanes 2, 16, and 24). The shift was prevented by the addition of cold EµDNA probe (Fig. 1CCitation , Lanes 3–6) or of specific DNA sequences identical to the µA (Fig. 1CCitation , Lanes 7–10) or µC (Fig. 1CCitation , Lanes 11–14) sequences of the Eµ. The supershift assay demonstrated that specific antibodies inhibited the binding of Ets-1 (Fig. 1CCitation , Lanes 17 and 18) or of AML-1 (Fig. 1CCitation , Lanes 19 and 20). An irrelevant antibody to NFKB p50 (Fig. 1CCitation , Lanes 21 and 22) had not such effect. These results are consistent with previous observations (13) and confirm the capacity of the test system of measuring the binding between the Eµ sequences and the relevant factors. The presence of PNAEµwt (Fig. 1CCitation , Lanes 25–28), but not of PNAEµscr (Fig. 1CCitation , Lanes 29–32), had an inhibitory effect in the shift assay that resulted in a substantial decrease in the intensity of the radiolabeled bands. PNAs with a sequence that differed from PNAEµwt by 1–3 bases (PNAEµmut) failed to inhibit the binding of the nuclear factors to the EµDNA probe (data not shown). PNAEµcomp (Fig. 1BCitation and data not shown) caused inhibition in the shift assay, although this was lower than the one induced by PNAEµwt.



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  		Fig. 1. PNAEµwt prevents binding of specific factors to Eµ enhancer motifs. A, schematic representation of the Eµ enhancer structure on chromosome 14. The Eµ core elements are reported in details together with their specific nuclear factors. B, sequences of the Eµ enhancer DNA probes and of the PNAs used in the EMSA test. Only the 5'-3' DNA strands are shown. The box in the Eµ DNA probe indicates a modification of the original sequence introduced to prevent the potential binding of nuclear factors different from Ets-1 and AML-1. The PNAEµwt was complementary to the 3'-5', whereas PNAEµcomp was complementary to 5'-3' strand of the Eµ sequence. Both PNAs encompassed the µA and µC elements. C, EMSA was carried out using the radiolabelled Eµ DNA probe (Lanes 1, 15, and 23), a mixture of nuclear extracts from Cor3 cell line with the radiolabelled Eµ DNA probe in the absence (Lanes 2, 16, and 24) and in the presence (Lanes 3–14) of the indicated cold DNA competitors or specific antibodies to the involved nuclear factors (Lanes 17–20) and an irrelevant antibody to NFKB (Lanes 21–22; at a concentration of 200 ng or 1 µg/30 µl), or different amounts of PNAs, PNAEµwt (25–28) or PNAEµscr (Lanes 29–32): 1 µM, Lanes 25 and 29; 3 µM, Lanes 26 and 30; 10 µM, Lanes 27 and 31; 30 µM, Lanes 28 and 32). In this panel, the actual autoradiographic data of the electrophoretic separations of the mixtures described are presented. The shift in the gel run, caused by formation of specific complexes, is indicated by an arrow.

 
Ability of PNAEµwt of Inhibiting c-mycTranscription in BL Cells.
Subsequently, we investigated whether PNAEµwt inhibited the transcription of the c-myc oncogene in BL cells, which express only the translocated c-myc and not the normal allele (18) . For these experiments, two cell lines were used: BRG, where the breakpoint on chromosome 14 occurs in the JH region and the two translocated exons of c-myc oncogene are near the Eµ enhancer sequence (19 , 20) , and RAMOS, where the breakpoint on chromosome 14 occurs in the switch µ region (21) , and the three translocated c-myc exons are located in proximity of this site, whereas the Eµ sequence is translocated on chromosome 8 (Fig. 2A)Citation . BL cells were permeabilized with lysolecithin, exposed to the different PNAs, and c-myc or µ chain mRNA production was measured in a run-off transcription assay.



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  		Fig. 2. Down-regulation of c-myc and µ-chain transcription by PNAEµwt in permeabilized BL cells. A, schematic representation of the topography of the c-myc rearrangement in BRG and RAMOS cells. The specific targets for the PNAs used are also indicated. B, newly transcribed c-myc and µ-chain mRNA were evaluated by a run-off transcription assay on permeabilized BRG or RAMOS cell lines treated with the indicated PNAs. The autoradiographic response of the quantitative slot-blot of each mRNA preparation is shown in the lowest panels. The histograms report the effect of the various PNAs on c-myc and µ chain transcription calculated as percentage of an internal control: the nonresponsive gene G3PDH. This experiment is representative of three tests.

 
In this test, PNAEµwt (but not PNAEµscr or PNAEµmut) substantially inhibited the transcription of c-myc mRNA in BRG but not in RAMOS cells (Fig. 2B)Citation . The inhibition was similar to the one induced by PNAmycwt (3) . PNAEµwt (but not PNAEµscr) inhibited the transcription of the Ig heavy µ chain in RAMOS and BRG cells (Fig. 2B)Citation , as well as in EBV-positive lymphoblastoid B-cell lines, whereas the production of {gamma} or {alpha} mRNA remained unaffected (data not shown). Likewise, PNAEµwt failed to inhibit {alpha} chain mRNA synthesis in BRG-A cells (a switch variant of BRG cells that produce only IgA; Ref. 20 ; data not shown). PNAEµcomp inhibited c-myc transcription in BRG (and not in RAMOS cells) although at a lower extent than PNAEµwt. Furthermore PNAEµcomp, although blocked significantly IgM expression, was less efficient than PNAEµwt in both BRG and RAMOS cells (Fig. 2B)Citation .

Down-Regulation of c-mycExpression in Viable BRG Cells by PNAEµwt.
Next we investigated whether PNAEµ, like all the PNAs used here, was linked to NLS peptide and could therefore enter the cell nuclei and block c-myc expression in viable BL cells in vivo. BL cells were incubated with the various PNAs in vitro and tested for both mRNA transcription and MYC protein expression. As shown in Fig. 3Citation , c-myc mRNA transcription and MYC translation in BRG cells were inhibited by PNAEµwt at levels similar to those observed with PNAmycwt treatment. PNAEµwt treatment was not effective at inhibiting c-myc expression in RAMOS cells.



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  		Fig. 3. Assessment of c-myc down-regulation by PNAEµw in viable BL cells in culture. A, c-myc mRNA expression. RNA was extracted from cells cultured for 18 h in the presence of the indicated PNAs and analyzed by Northern Blot with ß-actin or c-myc-specific probes. c-myc mRNA concentrations were determined from the autoradiographic signals and expressed as percentage of mRNA of the unsusceptible ß-actin gene. MYC protein expression. MYC protein was detected by Western blot in cells cultured for 48 h in the presence of the indicated PNAs. MYC concentrations are here normalized (NIH image) to histone H2B concentrations and reported as percentages. The data in A and B are representative of three experiments.

 
Inhibition of Proliferation and Apoptosis of BRG Cells by PNAEµwt.
Next, we tested whether the proliferation of BRG cells caused by c-myc deregulation was blocked by PNAEµwt. As shown in Fig. 4ACitation , the cell cycle analysis of cells cultured with various PNAs for 72 h showed that PNAEµwt caused a reduction of the S and G2 + M phases of the cell cycle in BRG cells comparable with the one induced by PNAmycwt treatment. PNAEµcomp, although able to inhibit the cell cycling capacity, was consistently less efficient than PNAEµwt. In contrast, PNAEµscr or PNAEµmut were ineffective. As expected, because of the topography of the t(8;14) chromosomal translocation, PNAmycwt only could inhibit the cell cycle in RAMOS (Fig. 4A)Citation . Fig. 4BCitation shows the growth curves of BRG and RAMOS cells in the presence of the various PNAs, whereas Fig. 4CCitation reports the total cell number detected in the cultures treated with the different PNAs for 72 h. Again inhibition of cell growth by PNAEµwt was only observed in BRG cells.



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  		Fig. 4. Growth and apoptosis inhibition of BL cell line by PNAEµwt. A, flow cytometric analysis of the cell cycle in BRG or RAMOS cells cultured with the indicated PNAs for 72 h. B, growth curve of BRG and RAMOS cells treated with different PNAs ({square}, medium; {blacksquare}, PNAEµwt; {bullet}, PNAEµscr; {circ}, PNAmycwt). C, cell numbers detected in BRG or RAMOS cell cultures treated with the indicated PNAs for 72 h. Identical numbers (5 x 105) of cells were plated in the different cultures and the absolute number of cells determined. D, apoptosis of BL cells exposed to F(ab')2 {alpha}-µ antibody or to medium alone in the presence of the indicated PNAs. Apoptosis was measured by PI staining of permeabilized cells and flow cytometry.

 
The up-regulation of c-myc renders BL cells apoptosis prone, particularly when surface IgM is cross-linked by an appropriate antibody in vitro. Here, we investigated whether PNAEµwt, by inhibiting c-myc expression, also prevented apoptosis. BL cells were treated with different PNAs for 12 h and subsequently exposed to an F(ab')2{alpha}-µAb. As shown in Fig. 4DCitation , PNAEµwt treatment substantially inhibited the apoptosis of BRG (and not of RAMOS) cells in this setting.

Concluding Remarks.
This study demonstrates that DNA regulatory sequences can be targeted with specific PNAs. The presence of the PNAs, by blocking the binding of specific nuclear factors, results in the inhibition of the regulatory functions of the DNA sequences as shown by the down-regulation of IgM synthesis and the expression of the c-myc oncogene under Eµ control. Interestingly, although PNAs complementary to both the sense and the antisense strand of the Eµ sequence were able to inhibit both transcription of the µ chain and of the translocated c-myc, the PNA specific for the antisense strand (PNAEµwt) was more efficient than PNAEµcomp. This phenomenon is presently being investigated in depth, but it may suggest a preferential binding of nuclear factors to the antisense DNA strand. Other investigators have reached a similar conclusion when studying the blocking of the Ets binding by DNA methylation (22) .

The present observations reinforce the hypothesis that the proximity of the Eµ enhancer increases c-myc oncogene expression in BL, presumably through the same mechanism required for µ chain expression (8 , 12) . These data are also of practical relevance. First, specific PNAs can be used to elucidate the potential regulatory role of certain genomic sequences, the function of which is still poorly understood. Second, they can be used as anticancer agents by targeting the regulatory sequences, which facilitate the expression of certain oncogenes. This approach seems particularly suitable for oncogenes that as a consequence of a chromosomal translocation have acquired new and unusual regulatory elements. The specific block imposed by PNAs on the regulatory sequences would not affect the expression of the normal corresponding proto-oncogene in nonneoplastic cells, and these agents should be less toxic in vivo than the PNAs targeting the oncogene sequences themselves. In the case of lymphoproliferative disorders, the Eµ sequence appears to be a relevant common target because a variety of translocated oncogenes (bcl-2, bcl-1, bcl-10) may be under Eµ control (7) . Moreover, the hypogammaglobulinemia that would be likely a common side effect of this approach would not invalidate the application of this therapy because only IgM synthesis is affected by PNAEµwt.


   ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 
We thank Dr. Anna Rubartelli and Mrs Mauri Ulivi for revising the manuscript.


   FOOTNOTES
 
The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. This article must therefore be hereby marked advertisement in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.

1 This work was supported by grants from Associazione Italiana per la Ricerca sul Cancro, Progetto Finalizzato Sanità ’99, Salute 2000/2002 (to M. F. and L. C. B.), Fondo Investimenti Ricerca di Base Project Grant RBAU01R5SE, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche Agenzia 2000 Project Grant CNRC00AC9_001 (to M. F. and L. C. B.); Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Project AIDS Grant 30D-30 (to M. F.); Ministero dell’Università e Ricerca Scientifica e Tecnologica (to M. F.) Associazione Italiana Leucemie La Spezia (to S. R.); and Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche Target Project Biotechnology and Strategic Project Drug Delivery (to U. B.). Back

2 To whom requests for reprints should be addressed, at Division of Medical Oncology C, National Cancer Research Institute, IST, Largo R. Benzi 10, 16132 Genoa, Italy. Phone: 39-010-5600272; Fax: 39-010-5600264; E-mail: giovanna.cutrona{at}istge.it Back

3 The abbreviations used are: PNA, peptide nucleic acid; NLS, nuclear localization signal; Ig, immunoglobulin; AML-1, acute myelogenous leukemia 1; EMSA, electrophoretic mobility shift assay; PI, propidium iodide; BL, Burkitt’s Lymphoma; Eµ, Eµ intronic enhancer; PNAEµwt, PNA complementary for a unique Eµ sequence; PNAEµscr, PNA with same base composition as PNAEµ but in randomized order; PNAEµmut, PNAEµwt with a point mutated sequence but unchanged pyrimidine purine ratio; PNAEµcomp, PNA specific for the complementary strand targeted by PNAEµwt; PNAmycwt, PNA c-myc anti-gene; PNAmycmut, PNAmycwt trimutated. Back

Received 4/10/03. Revised 7/21/03. Accepted 8/19/03.


   REFERENCES
Top
 ABSTRACT
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results and Discussion
 REFERENCES
 

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