| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
Regular Articles |
Departments of 1 Pathology and Laboratory Medicine and 2 Neurosurgery and Hematology/Oncology and Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, and 3 Department of Pathology, LDS Hospital, Salt Lake City, Utah
 |
ABSTRACT |
|---|
 Top ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
, consistent with their hypoxic nature, and hypoxia induces a 20–60% increase in glioma cell migration in vitro. Hypoxic cells in vitro and pseudopalisades in GBM specimens show enhanced gelatinase activity, typical of an invasive phenotype. These results suggest that pseudopalisading cells are migrating at the periphery of a hypoxic center. To uncover a potential source of hypoxia and sequence of structural events leading to pseudopalisade formation, we performed a morphometric analysis of 234 pseudopalisades from 85 pretreatment GBMs. We found distorted, degenerating, or thrombosed blood vessels within the center of more than half the pseudopalisades, suggesting that at least a subset of pseudopalisades are two-dimensional histologic representations of tumor cells migrating away from a vaso-occlusive event. |
INTRODUCTION |
|---|
|
TopABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
The intimate relationship between pseudopalisades and vascular proliferation in nearby regions is beginning to be understood (5 , 6) . Most studies indicate that pseudopalisading cells express high levels of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) because of increased transcriptional activity of hypoxia-inducible factors 1 and 2 (HIF-1 and -2; Refs. 7, 8, 9 ). Secretion of VEGF, in turn, causes endothelial proliferation and angiogenesis, which takes the form of microvascular hyperplasia and glomeruloid bodies in GBM and other tumors (6 , 10) .
In contrast to our understanding of the angiogenic events that follow pseudopalisade formation, the pathogenesis of the pseudopalisading cells that initiate this sequence is not well defined (11, 12, 13, 14) . This hypercellular population potentially could represent (a) rapidly proliferating neoplastic cells that have "outgrown their blood supply" and undergone central necrosis; (b) a population resistant to apoptosis, which has accumulated because of increased cell survival; (c) a mixed population of tumor and inflammatory cells adjacent to necrosis; or (d) a population of cells migrating to or from a central focus.
We addressed the first three possibilities by studying pseudopalisades in human GBM specimens for proliferative activity, apoptotic rates, and potential inflammatory components. We addressed the fourth possibility by investigating whether hypoxia affected the migration of glioma cells or the expression of extracellular proteolytic enzymes associated with invasive properties, such as matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and the urokinase-dependent plasminogen-activating cascade. We also performed a morphometric analysis on a series of pseudopalisades in pretreatment GBM specimens to determine whether their features would be compatible with a sequence that included vaso-occlusion, hypoxia, increased tumor cell migration, and central necrosis.
|
MATERIALS AND METHODS |
|---|
|
TopABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
(mouse monoclonal, 1:5000; Novus-Biologicals, Littleton, CO), and urokinase-type plasminogen activator receptor (uPAR; mouse monoclonal, #3936, 1:200; American Diagnostica, Stamford, CT). Antibodies were detected using the avidin-biotin-peroxidase complex method using 3,3'-diaminobenzidine as the chromogen. Standard positive controls were used throughout. Normal sera served as the negative control. Sections were counterstained with hematoxylin.
Quantitation of Proliferation Indices, Apoptosis, and Inflammatory Cells.
The percentage of cells showing nuclear staining for MIB-1 was quantitated independently by manual counting and by image cytometric analysis on separate tumor sets. For manual counts, the total number of tumor nuclei and those staining for MIB-1 were counted in three pseudopalisades for each of the nine GBMs by one of the authors (D. J. B.). Similar counts were made in the region of infiltrating astrocytoma directly adjacent to each pseudopalisade. Each count tallied a minimum of 250 cells. For cytometric analysis of MIB-1 proliferation, a CAS 200 image cytometer (Becton Dickinson Cellular Imaging Systems, San Jose, CA) quantitated nuclear area that stained with 3,3'-diaminobenzidine (brown) compared with total nuclear area stained with hematoxylin (blue). At 620 nm, brown and blue nuclei absorb, giving a measure of total nuclear area. At 500 nm, only brown staining nuclei absorb, giving a measure of MIB-1 staining nuclei. For each of 10 GBMs (distinct from those used for manual counting), 15 fields were captured in regions of pseudopalisading cells and adjacent infiltrative astrocytoma.
For assessing apoptosis, the number of cleaved caspase-3-expressing cells and total cells were counted in three pseudopalisades and regions of adjacent astrocytoma from nine GBM specimens (15) . In these same specimens, the percentage of LCA-positive lymphocytes and CD68-positive macrophages in pseudopalisades and adjacent astrocytoma was calculated. For studies of proliferation, apoptosis, and inflammatory infiltrates, mean and SE were calculated for pseudopalisades and adjacent astrocytoma. A two-sided Student’s t test was performed for significance (P < 0.05).
Glioblastoma Cell Lines and Culture Conditions.
Human glioblastoma cell lines (LN229, 2024, and WT11) and their cell culture conditions have been described previously (16)
. Cells were grown to 80% confluence in 100-mm culture dishes, placed in serum-free media at 37°C in incubators in conditions of 20% O2 (normoxia), 1% O2 (hypoxia), or in 300 µM CoCl2. For experiments in 1% O2, culture dishes were placed in small Modular Incubator Chambers (Billups-Rothenberg, Del Mar, CA), which were flushed with 94% N2, 5% CO2, and 1% O2, and then stored in 37°C incubators. After 24 h, cell pellets and conditioned media were collected and immediately frozen at -70°C. For protein analysis, cells were lysed immediately before use in 50 mM Tris-Cl (pH 6.8), 100 mM DTT, 2% SDS, 0.1% bromphenol blue, and 10% glycerol.
In Vitro Cell Migration.
A total of 5 x 104 LN229, WT11, or 2024 cells were plated into the upper compartment of modified Boyden chambers (BD Biocoat, Becton Dickinson Labware, Bedford, MA) in 24-well plates. Top compartments contained 0.5 ml DMEM/10% fetal bovine serum, and bottom compartments contained 0.75 ml of DMEM/10% fetal bovine serum. Chamber inserts separating the upper and lower compartments contained 8-µm pores and were uncoated. Cells were allowed to migrate for 4, 8, 16, or 24 h at 37°C in 20% O2 or 1% O2. Cells remaining on the top of the insert were removed by wiping with cotton swabs. Migrated cells on the bottom of the insert were fixed in methanol and stained with a Diff-Quik Stain Set (Dade Behring, Newark, DE). Total cells were counted using a stage micrometer within a central 6.25-mm2 grid, which accounted for 14% of the surface area of the insert. Experiments were performed in triplicate, with the resulting mean and SE from hypoxic and normoxic conditions being compared by a two-sided Student’s t test for significance (P < 0.05).
Western Blot Analysis.
Immunoblots were performed on protein from cell lysates from indicated cell lines. Equal amounts of protein (30 µg) were resolved on a 10% SDS-PAGE and transferred to nitrocellulose membranes. Blots were probed with mouse monoclonal anti-HIF-1 antibody (1:750; BD Biosciences, Franklin Lakes, NJ) or mouse monoclonal uPAR (1:250; #3937, American Diagnostica), incubated with horseradish peroxidase conjugated to goat antimouse antibody (1:1000; Dako), and developed by enhanced chemiluminescence reagents (Pierce Biotechnology, Rockford, IL). Actin blots were developed by goat antihuman actin antibody (1:500, Santa Cruz Biotechnology Inc., Santa Cruz, CA), followed by horseradish peroxidase-conjugated swine antigoat antibody (1:1000; Roche Molecular Biochemicals, Indianapolis, IN), and visualized by enhanced chemiluminescence.
Gel Zymography.
Gelatinolytic activity of serum-free conditioned media was assessed by gelatin zymography for LN229 cells grown for 24 h in 20% oxygen, 1% oxygen, and 300 µM CoCl2. Five hundred µl of conditioned media from each condition were concentrated fivefold using Centricon centrifugal filter devices (Millipore, Bedford, MA), and 60 µl were used for loading {loaded under nonreducing conditions with 10 µl electrophoresis buffer [350 mM Tris-HCl (pH 6.8), 10% SDS, 30% glycerol, and 0.1% bromphenol blue]}. Proteins were separated electrophoretically at 4°C in an 8% SDS-polyacrylamide gel containing 0.1% type B gelatin (Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO). The gel was rinsed three times for 20 min in 2.5% Triton X-100, followed by digestion [50 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.5), 200 mm NaCl, 5 mM CaCl2, and 0.02% NaN3] at 37°C for 36 h. The gel then was stained with 0.05% Coomassie Blue in methanol, acetic acid, and H2O (3:1:6) at room temperature for 1 h and destained in the same solution without Coomassie Blue three times for 15 min.
Activity of plasminogen activators was assessed in serum-free conditioned media from LN229 cells grown for 24 h in 20% O2, 1% O2, and 300 µM CoCl2 by similar methods. Proteins were separated electrophoretically at 4°C in an 8% SDS-polyacrylamide gel containing 2 mg/ml -casein and 0.025 units/ml of plasminogen (Sigma). Gels were rinsed, digested, stained, and destained as described previously.
In Situ Gel Zymography.
A thin film of 8% polyacrylamide gel containing 1% gelatin (no SDS) was allowed to dry onto charged histologic glass slides in a reduced oxygen environment (1% O2 for 2 h). Frozen glioblastoma tissue sections (6 µm) on histologic slides then were applied to the gel, with the gel and tissue section directly contacting each other between a sandwich of glass slides. Gel and tissue were incubated together at 37°C for 6 h in digestion buffer (see above), after which the tissue section was removed. The gel was stained in 0.05% Coomassie Blue and destained as described previously. Regions on the gel corresponding to pseudopalisades on adjacent H&E-stained sections were evaluated for gelatinase activity.
ELISA for Urokinase-Type Plasminogen Activator.
Concentrations of uPA were determined by ELISA per the manufacturer’s instructions (Imunobind uPA ELISA kit; American Diagnostica) on conditioned serum-free media obtained from LN229 cells exposed to 20% O2, 1% O2, or 300 µM CoCl2 for 24 h.
Morphometric Analysis of Pseudopalisades.
Morphometric analysis was performed by one of the authors (D. J. B.) on pseudopalisades within GBM specimens from the Radiation Therapy Oncology Group (RTOG) tissue repository from clinical trials RTOG 02–11, 00–23, 00–21, 98–06, 96–02, 93–05, and 90–06. The trials were chosen because enrolled patients had new-onset GBM (no recurrent neoplasms), substantial tissue resections rather than stereotactic biopsy, and no previous radiation therapy or chemotherapy. Patients fulfilled specific hematologic and laboratory criteria for clinical trial enrollment and therefore were unlikely to have blood-clotting disorders (for more information, see www.rtog.org).
Representative slides sent to the RTOG tissue bank were reviewed for the presence of pseudopalisades. Only pseudopalisades with a complete circumference within the tissue were analyzed. One hundred eighty-four tumors were reviewed, and 85 contained complete pseudopalisades that could be analyzed. Each of the 85 contained 1–12 pseudopalisades (average, 3 per tumor), yielding 234 pseudopalisades to be evaluated. The average cell density of pseudopalisading cells compared with adjacent astrocytoma was determined using a stage micrometer on 12 random pseudopalisades from six GBM specimens (Fig. 1)
. The areas studied in each instance measured 0.033 mm x 0.167 mm. Maximal internal width and lengths of each pseudopalisade were measured (Fig. 1)
. The presence of any vascular lumen within the internal circumference of the pseudopalisade was noted, as was the presence of thrombosis within the blood vessel. Thrombosis was defined as a solid deposition of platelets and fibrin that filled the entire vascular lumen. The internal content of the pseudopalisade was classified as either fibrillar or necrotic, and the presence of nuclear fragmentation and neuropil vacuolization was noted. If present, the distance from a central blood vessel to the nearest internal edge of the pseudopalisade was measured. Using a significance threshold of P < 0.05, 
2 tests were performed to compare proportions of large (>200 µm) and small (<200 µm) pseudopalisades that had a given feature.
|
|
RESULTS |
|---|
|
TopABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
for example of areas counted). We found that the cell density (mean ± SE) in pseudopalisades was 1.95 ± 0.16 x 104 cells/mm2 as compared with 1.02 ± 0.07 x 104 cells/mm2 in adjacent astrocytoma (P < 0.05).
Pseudopalisades Are Less Proliferative than Adjacent Astrocytoma.
Given the twofold increased cellularity of pseudopalisades, we measured proliferation rates to determine whether increased cell division accounted for cellular accumulation. MIB-1 is an antibody that recognizes the nuclear antigen Ki67, which is expressed in actively cycling cells but is absent from resting (G0) cells (17)
. MIB-1 proliferation indices were lower in pseudopalisades of GBMs than in adjacent astrocytoma for each GBM investigated as quantitated by two independent methods (Fig. 2)
. In the nine GBMs analyzed by manual counting, MIB-1 indices varied substantially in both pseudopalisades (range, 10–38%) and in adjacent astrocytoma (range, 20–41%). The percentage of neoplastic cells staining in pseudopalisades was lower than in the astrocytoma immediately next to it for each of the GBMs (average ± SE, 20.8 ± 2.8 in pseudopalisades versus 27.6 ± 3.0 in adjacent astrocytoma; P < 0.05; Fig. 2B
).
|
). MIB-1 indices determined by image cytometry are typically lower than those determined by manual counting because the threshold for detecting nuclear MIB-1 by image cytometry is higher than visual detection (17)
. Lower proliferation indices in pseudopalisades indicated that their increased cellularity is not caused by increased proliferation.
Pseudopalisades Have Higher Rates of Apoptosis than Adjacent Astrocytoma.
We next considered whether resistance to apoptosis could account for the hypercellularity of pseudopalisades by using an antibody that recognizes the cleaved, activated form of caspase-3, which is specific for cells undergoing apoptosis (15)
. IHC for cleaved (activated) caspase-3 in nine GBMs showed that the percentage of immunoreactive tumor cells was significantly higher in pseudopalisades than in adjacent astrocytoma (Fig. 3)
. The percentage of cells staining with cleaved caspase-3 varied from 0.3–2.1% within given pseudopalisades and from 0.02–0.2% within regions of adjacent astrocytoma. In each of the nine GBMs, the percentage of cleaved caspase-3 staining tumor cells was higher in pseudopalisades than adjacent astrocytoma, ranging from 6–20-fold greater (mean ± SE, 12.2- ± 1.4-fold; P < 0.05; Fig. 3B
). IHC for (total) caspase-3 showed mild immunoreactivity of equal intensity in nearly all of the cells of pseudopalisades and adjacent astrocytoma. Because the antibody for caspase-3 also recognizes the cleaved protein fragment, occasional cells with more intense immunoreactivity were noted in the same distribution of cells that stained for cleaved caspase-3 (not shown). Thus, resistance to apoptosis did not cause cellular accumulation in pseudopalisades.
|
Pseudopalisading Cells and Hypoxic GBM Cells in Vitro Express HIF-1.
Results from the aforementioned studies left the possibility that pseudopalisades represent an actively migrating population, and we hypothesized cell migration might be related to hypoxia. IHC for HIF-1 performed on nine GBM specimens demonstrated strong nuclear staining in 20–30% of pseudopalisading cells, with little or no staining in adjacent tumor cells (Fig. 4, A and B)
. As a control for antibody specificity on formalin-fixed tissue and to demonstrate similar hypoxic up-regulation of HIF-1 in our in vitro experiments, we performed IHC for HIF-1 on formalin-fixed LN229 cells grown in normoxia, CoCl2 (Fig. 4C)
, or 1% O2 (hypoxia, not shown) for 24 h. Increased expression of HIF-1, specifically in the nucleus, was seen in cells exposed to hypoxia or CoCl2 but was not noted in normoxic cells (Fig. 4C)
. Western blot analysis using cell lysates from 2024 (Fig. 4D)
and LN229 (not shown) human GBM cells confirmed that hypoxia and CoCl2 cause dramatic increases in HIF-1 protein expression.
|
). For all three cell lines, increased migration was seen under hypoxic conditions at 24 h (Fig. 5, B and C
; P < 0.05 for each cell line). Migration increased most in hypoxia for 2024 cells compared with normoxia (60% increase). The 2024 cells that migrated under hypoxia also had morphologic differences from migrated normoxic cells. The former were more highly spindled, had larger cytoplasmic surface area, and more numerous cellular processes (Fig. 5B)
, whereas the latter were rounder or polygonal (Fig. 5A)
.
|
. Areas of gelatinase activity were slightly larger than pseudopalisades, suggesting that either the pseudopalisade in the section applied to the gel was larger than the adjacent H&E slide or the gelatinase activity extends slightly beyond the area of pseudopalisading. Adjacent regions corresponding to infiltrating astrocytoma showed patchy gelatinase activity but not the intense focal activity of pseudopalisades (not shown).
|
. Bands corresponding to pro-MMP-2 (Mr 72,000) and active MMP-2 (Mr 68,000) were markedly larger under these conditions. A minor band at Mr 140,000 also was noted in hypoxia and CoCl2, likely representing an MMP-2 dimer. A gelatinolytic band at Mr 92,000 corresponding to MMP-9 was not detected under these conditions.
Hypoxic and Normoxic GBM Cells Express uPAR and Secrete uPA.
The plasminogen-activating cascade, including secreted uPA and its cell surface receptor uPAR, are believed to be important for cellular migration and invasive behavior. ELISA analysis of uPA (urokinase) levels in conditioned media from LN229 cells exposed to normoxia showed a concentration of 1.9 ± 0.1 ng/ml, and levels were increased only modestly by hypoxia (2.1 ± 0.1 ng/ml). Likewise, gel zymography on the same media showed little difference in plasminogen activation between hypoxic and normoxic cells (not shown). Immunohistochemistry for the uPAR on GBM specimens showed roughly similar expression in pseudopalisades and adjacent astrocytoma, but uPAR expression was higher in neoplastic tissue than in non-neoplastic brain (not shown). Western blot analyses showed similar uPAR expression in normoxic and hypoxic LN229 cells (not shown).
Morphologic Features of Pseudopalisades Vary with Width.
The aforementioned findings suggested that pseudopalisades represent a cell population migrating from hypoxia. We then wanted to uncover a sequence of structural events and potential sources of hypoxia/necrosis associated with pseudopalisade formation. We performed a morphometric analysis of pseudopalisades in a series of 184 cases of pretreatment GBMs (see "Materials and Methods"). We identified 85 that contained 234 complete pseudopalisades, ranging from 30 to 1500 µm in greatest internal width and from 50 to 3500 µm in greatest internal length (Fig. 1
and Table 1
). We found that more than half of the pseudopalisades examined (55%) had evidence of a central vascular lumen, either viable (Fig. 7, C and D)
, degenerating (Fig. 7E)
, or thrombosed (Fig. 7F)
. Twenty percent of pseudopalisades contained a vessel with intravascular thrombosis, as evidenced by complete occlusion of the lumen by unorganized platelet and fibrin clot (Fig. 7F)
. We found that the percentage of pseudopalisades with internal vessel(s) or intravascular thrombus was related to the width of the pseudopalisade, with wide pseudopalisades (>200 µm) more frequently containing these elements than narrow ones (<200 µm; 2 test; P < 0.05; Table 1
). All of the pseudopalisades >500 µm wide (Fig. 7C)
had internal vessels, and 44% contained intravascular thrombosis. The presence of necrosis or central fibrillarity within pseudopalisades also correlated best with internal width: pseudopalisades with small widths, especially <100 µm, most often had fibrillar, non-necrotic centers (Fig. 7A)
. All of the pseudopalisades >500 µm had necrotic centers (Fig. 7C)
. Pseudopalisades characterized by a narrow (<100 µm) but long (>500 µm) shape (i.e., serpiginous) were more likely to have fibrillar centers. In general, the distance from the vascular wall, when present, to the internal wall of the pseudopalisade increased with pseudopalisade width (Fig. 1
and Table 1
). In the largest pseudopalisades, this distance averaged 33 µm (SD, 40 µm).
|
|
|
DISCUSSION |
|---|
|
TopABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
Our studies show that cells in pseudopalisades have a lower proliferation index than adjacent cells. This finding does not support previous contentions that pseudopalisades represent a rapidly dividing tumor population that has "outgrown its blood supply" and undergone central necrosis (11 , 12) . The increased cellularity could not be explained by a decreased rate of apoptosis either, since pseudopalisading cells show higher rates of cleaved caspase-3 than adjacent cells (13, 14, 15) . The twofold increased cell density could not be accounted for by a coexisting inflammatory component around the region of necrosis because inflammatory cells accounted for less than 2% of total cells in GBM. Among the possibilities considered, we hypothesized that pseudopalisades represent a population of neoplastic cells migrating from a central focus. The addition of outwardly migrating cells to a less motile population would result in the hypercellular zones seen in tissue sections. To validate this hypothesis, we needed to identify the cause of cell migration and the sequence of events leading to the pseudopalisading phenotype.
A salient physiologic feature that distinguishes pseudopalisading from surrounding cells is hypoxia (19, 20, 21)
. We confirmed that pseudopalisading cells express high nuclear levels of HIF-1. HIF mediates an adaptive transcriptional response to hypoxia, which includes activation of glycolytic metabolism, secretion of proangiogenic factors, and increased cell migration (22
, 23) . In light of this, we examined whether pseudopalisading cells might be migrating from a central hypoxic region. Direct measures of cell migration cannot readily be performed in pathologic specimens. Therefore, we examined whether GBM cells in culture were more migratory under hypoxic conditions. We found that hypoxia induced a modest but reproducible (20–60%) increase in cell migration after 24 h depending on the cell line. This degree of enhanced migration could account easily for the twofold increase in cell density noted in pseudopalisades, which most likely form over the course of days to weeks. Our findings in gliomas agree with previous studies that have shown that hypoxia induces invasive behavior and a migratory phenotype in other forms of cancer, mostly by mechanisms that involve HIF-mediated transcription (23
, 24)
. Moreover, the pharmacologic agent geldanamycin has been shown to inhibit HIF activity and reduce basal (normoxic) migration by glioma cells (25)
.
Hypoxic induction of cellular migration and invasion depends in part on HIF-mediated transcription of extracellular matrix proteases. Among the gene targets of HIF-1, MMP-2 (23 , 26) and uPAR (27) , the receptor for urokinase, are relevant to invasive behavior. MMP-2 and -9 (also referred to as gelatinase A and B, respectively) are expressed and secreted by malignant gliomas in vivo and can modulate the invasive phenotype in vitro (28, 29, 30, 31) . In situ hybridization studies on human GBM specimens indicate that MMP-2 is expressed predominantly by glioma cells, whereas MMP-9 is expressed by proliferating endothelial cells (32) . Therefore, we examined whether gelatinase activity was up-regulated in hypoxic glioma cells and pseudopalisades. We found that MMP-2 activity in conditioned media of glioma cells was markedly increased under hypoxia. Intense gelatinase activity also was associated with pseudopalisades using in situ gelatin zymography on GBM tissue sections. The combined findings provide strong evidence for gelatinase-mediated extracellular proteolytic modifications in the region of migrating hypoxic cells.
The plasminogen-activating enzyme urokinase (uPA) and its receptor, uPAR, also are up-regulated in a number of neoplasms, and increased expression correlates with invasive behavior (33, 34, 35, 36) . Hypoxia up-regulates uPAR mRNA and its cell surface protein expression in breast carcinomas (27) . Our experiments did not reveal a substantial up-regulation of uPA, uPAR, or overall plasminogen activation by hypoxia in vitro. By immunohistochemistry, uPAR was expressed at higher levels in GBM than in surrounding normal brain but was not increased in pseudopalisades compared with adjacent astrocytoma. Neoplastic expression of uPAR and uPA may provide a permissive environment for cell migration in GBM, but their levels do not appear to be altered by hypoxia.
Although our evidence indicates that pseudopalisading cells likely represent an actively migrating population, the pathophysiologic mechanisms underlying the hypoxia-induced migration are unknown. One possibility is that cells at the greatest distance from arterial supplies become hypoxic after a critical point in tumor growth because of increased metabolic demands. Migration outward toward nearby vessels would leave a central zone that becomes necrotic (Fig. 8
, mechanism 1). Another possibility is that blood vessels within the neoplasm become occluded or collapse, resulting in perivascular tumor hypoxia and cellular migration, at the site of occlusion and proximal and distal to it (Fig. 8
, mechanism 2 and Fig. 9
). While we cannot formally exclude the first mechanism, the latter likely accounts for a significant fraction of pseudopalisades and may be more generally relevant based on the following observations.
|
|
, degenerating vessels (Fig. 7E)
, and intravascular thrombosis (Fig. 7F)
, giving the appearance of cells migrating away. What may initiate vascular thrombosis or occlusion? The "co-option" model of tumor progression, described recently in experimental models of metastasis and gliomas, suggests that initial tumor growth occurs around native "co-opted" blood vessels (9 , 40) . Once the tumor burden has reached a critical level, endothelial cells of co-opted vessels undergo angiopoietin-2-mediated apoptosis signaled through cell surface Tie-2 receptors, leading to vascular regression. If these mechanisms are relevant to human gliomas, angiopoietin-2-mediated vascular pathology could initiate pseudopalisade formation and the ensuing vascular proliferation that characterize GBM.
Opposing vaso-occlusion as a general mechanism, many pseudopalisades in tissue sections are not visibly associated with either a thrombosed vessel or a central, presumably dysfunctional vessel. Extensive necrosis within the pseudopalisade may preclude the morphologic identification of vascular structures in some cases. In addition, tissue sampling almost certainly accounts for an under-representation of vascular structures within pseudopalisades. We found that the percentage of pseudopalisades with internal vessels, thrombosis, and central necrosis increased with the width of the pseudopalisade. Tangential sectioning could lead frequently to the appearance of small pseudopalisades, which generally have fibrillar centers, lack significant necrosis, and often do not have associated vessels or thrombosis (see Fig. 7C
, arrow).
In conclusion, pseudopalisades and vascular proliferation in GBM may result from the following sequence (Fig. 9)
: (a) vascular occlusion, possibly related to angiopoietin-2-mediated endothelial apoptosis, associated with intravascular thrombosis; (b) hypoxia in regions surrounding vascular pathology; (c) outward migration of glioma cells creating a migration front (pseudopalisade); (d) death of nonmigrated cells leading to central necrosis; (e) secretion of soluble proangiogenic factors (VEGF and interleukin 8) by hypoxic pseudopalisading cells; and (f) an exuberant angiogenic response creating "glomeruloid microvascular proliferation." Although these events represent pathologic hallmarks of GBM, it is unclear whether they are cause or consequence of increased malignancy. Given that hypoxia-induced secretion of VEGF is a major proangiogenic event and that anti-VEGF strategies reduce tumor growth, the former is more likely (7
, 8
, 18)
. Moreover, given that glomeruloid vascular proliferation is a marker of poor prognosis in other cancers (6
, 10)
, the identification of their underlying mechanisms may have more general implications for tumor angiogenesis and malignant progression. Once identified, the pathophysiologic triggers underlying vaso-occlusion could become novel targets for antitumor therapy.
|
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
|---|
|
FOOTNOTES |
|---|
The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. This article must therefore be hereby marked advertisement in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
Requests for reprints: Daniel J. Brat, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University Hospital, H-176, 1364 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30322. Phone: 404-712-1266; Fax: 404-727-3133; E-mail: dbrat{at}emory.edu; or Erwin G. Van Meir, Laboratory of Molecular Neuro-Oncology, Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University, 1365-C Clifton Road NE, Room C5078, Atlanta, GA 30322. Phone: 404-778-5563; Fax: 404-778-5240; E-mail: evanmei{at}emory.edu
Received 7/11/03. Revised 10/ 7/03. Accepted 10/31/03.
|
REFERENCES |
|---|
|
TopABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
|---|
in tumours of patients with glioblastoma. Neuropathol. Appl. Neurobiol., 28: 210-217, 2002.[CrossRef][Medline]
(HIF-1á) as an intrinsic marker of tumor hypoxia in U87 MG human glioblastoma: in vitro and xenograft studies. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys., 56: 1184-1193, 2003.[CrossRef][Medline]
in brain tumors: association with angiogenesis, invasion, and progression. Cancer (Phila.), 88: 2606-2618, 2000.
) in glioma cell invasion. J. Cell Physiol., 196: 394-402, 2003.[CrossRef][Medline]
or basic fibroblast growth factor. J. Neuro-Oncol., 46: 115-123, 2000.[CrossRef][Medline]
This article has been cited by other articles:
|
|
 |
|
  J. Micallef, M. Taccone, J. Mukherjee, S. Croul, J. Busby, M. F. Moran, and A. Guha Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Variant III-Induced Glioma Invasion Is Mediated through Myristoylated Alanine-Rich Protein Kinase C Substrate Overexpression Cancer Res., October 1, 2009; 69(19): 7548 - 7556. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 G. Stoica, G. Lungu, H. Martini-Stoica, S. Waghela, J. Levine, and R. Smith Identification of Cancer Stem Cells in Dog Glioblastoma Vet. Pathol., May 1, 2009; 46(3): 391 - 406. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
Y. Rong, V. E. Belozerov, C. Tucker-Burden, G. Chen, D. L. Durden, J. J. Olson, E. G. Van Meir, N. Mackman, and D. J. Brat Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor and PTEN Modulate Tissue Factor Expression in Glioblastoma through JunD/Activator Protein-1 Transcriptional Activity Cancer Res., March 15, 2009; 69(6): 2540 - 2549. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
B. Kaur, S. M. Cork, E. M. Sandberg, N. S. Devi, Z. Zhang, P. A. Klenotic, M. Febbraio, H. Shim, H. Mao, C. Tucker-Burden, et al. Vasculostatin Inhibits Intracranial Glioma Growth and Negatively Regulates In vivo Angiogenesis through a CD36-Dependent Mechanism Cancer Res., February 1, 2009; 69(3): 1212 - 1220. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 D. Zagzag, M. Esencay, O. Mendez, H. Yee, I. Smirnova, Y. Huang, L. Chiriboga, E. Lukyanov, M. Liu, and E. W. Newcomb Hypoxia- and Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor-Induced Stromal Cell-Derived Factor-1{alpha}/CXCR4 Expression in Glioblastomas: One Plausible Explanation of Scherer's Structures Am. J. Pathol., August 1, 2008; 173(2): 545 - 560. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 A. M. Spence, M. Muzi, K. R. Swanson, F. O'Sullivan, J. K. Rockhill, J. G. Rajendran, T. C.H. Adamsen, J. M. Link, P. E. Swanson, K. J. Yagle, et al. Regional Hypoxia in Glioblastoma Multiforme Quantified with [18F]Fluoromisonidazole Positron Emission Tomography before Radiotherapy: Correlation with Time to Progression and Survival Clin. Cancer Res., May 1, 2008; 14(9): 2623 - 2630. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 R. Du, C. Petritsch, K. Lu, P. Liu, A. Haller, R. Ganss, H. Song, S. Vandenberg, and G. Bergers Matrix metalloproteinase-2 regulates vascular patterning and growth affecting tumor cell survival and invasion in GBM Neuro-oncol, January 1, 2008; 10(3): 254 - 264. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. Hutterer, P. Knyazev, A. Abate, M. Reschke, H. Maier, N. Stefanova, T. Knyazeva, V. Barbieri, M. Reindl, A. Muigg, et al. Axl and Growth Arrest Specific Gene 6 Are Frequently Overexpressed in Human Gliomas and Predict Poor Prognosis in Patients with Glioblastoma Multiforme Clin. Cancer Res., January 1, 2008; 14(1): 130 - 138. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 F.J. Wippold II, M. Lammle, F. Anatelli, J. Lennerz, and A. Perry Neuropathology for the Neuroradiologist: Palisades and Pseudopalisades AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol., November 1, 2006; 27(10): 2037 - 2041. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 Z. F. Yang, R. T.P. Poon, Y. Liu, C. K. Lau, D. W. Ho, K. H. Tam, C. T. Lam, and S. T. Fan High doses of tyrosine kinase inhibitor PTK787 enhance the efficacy of ischemic hypoxia for the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma: dual effects on cancer cell and angiogenesis. Mol. Cancer Ther., September 1, 2006; 5(9): 2261 - 2270. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 G. Tabatabai, B. Frank, R. Mohle, M. Weller, and W. Wick Irradiation and hypoxia promote homing of haematopoietic progenitor cells towards gliomas by TGF-{beta}-dependent HIF-1{alpha}-mediated induction of CXCL12 Brain, September 1, 2006; 129(9): 2426 - 2435. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
Y. Rong, F. Hu, R. Huang, N. Mackman, J. M. Horowitz, R. L. Jensen, D. L. Durden, E. G. Van Meir, and D. J. Brat Early Growth Response Gene-1 Regulates Hypoxia-Induced Expression of Tissue Factor in Glioblastoma Multiforme through Hypoxia-Inducible Factor-1-Independent Mechanisms. Cancer Res., July 15, 2006; 66(14): 7067 - 7074. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
Y.-H. Zhou, K. R. Hess, L. Liu, Mark. E. Linskey, and W.K. A. Yung Modeling prognosis for patients with malignant astrocytic gliomas: Quantifying the expression of multiple genetic markers and clinical variables Neuro-oncol, October 1, 2005; 7(4): 485 - 494. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
E. W. Newcomb, M. A. Ali, T. Schnee, L. Lan, Y. Lukyanov, M. Fowkes, D. C. Miller, and D. Zagzag Flavopiridol downregulates hypoxia-mediated hypoxia-inducible factor-1{alpha} expression in human glioma cells by a proteasome-independent pathway: Implications for in vivo therapy Neuro-oncol, July 1, 2005; 7(3): 225 - 235. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
B. Kaur, F. W. Khwaja, E. A. Severson, S. L. Matheny, D. J. Brat, and E. G. Van Meir Hypoxia and the hypoxia-inducible-factor pathway in glioma growth and angiogenesis Neuro-oncol, April 1, 2005; 7(2): 134 - 153. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 M. Bruehlmeier, U. Roelcke, P. A. Schubiger, and S. M. Ametamey Assessment of Hypoxia and Perfusion in Human Brain Tumors Using PET with 18F-Fluoromisonidazole and 15O-H2O J. Nucl. Med., November 1, 2004; 45(11): 1851 - 1859. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
| Cancer Research | Clinical Cancer Research |
| Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention | Molecular Cancer Therapeutics |
| Molecular Cancer Research | Cancer Prevention Research |
| Cancer Prevention Journals Portal | Cancer Reviews Online |
| Annual Meeting Education Book | Meeting Abstracts Online |
