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Experimental Therapeutics, Molecular Targets, and Chemical Biology |
Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Genome Institute of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
Requests for reprints: Qiang Yu. Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Genome Institute of Singapore, Genome Building, #02-01, 60 Bipolis Street, Singapore, Singapore 138672. Phone: 65-6478-8127; Fax: 65-6478-9003; E-mail: yuq{at}gis.a-star.edu.sg.
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Abstract |
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Introduction |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Recent studies have indicated that p53 can directly induce apoptosis at the mitochondria. p53 has been shown to directly activate proapoptotic Bcl-2 family members Bax or Bak (12, 14, 15) and forms inhibitory complexes with antiapoptotic bcl-XL and Bcl2 proteins (15). These interactions eventually result in mitochondria permeabilization and cytochrome c release. This alternative p53 death pathway correlates with an early phase of apoptosis, which occurs independently of p53 transcriptional activity (16), and can be modulated by direct pharmacologic activator of p53 (16, 17). For the moment, little is known about the regulation of this pathway. Nonetheless, pharmacologic activation of this p53-dependent, transcription-independent apoptotic pathway might provide a feasible strategy for cancer therapeutics.
Glycogen synthase-3 kinase (GSK-3) is a constitutively expressed serine-tyrosine kinase that has two isoforms (
and ß) and is involved in diverse signaling pathways (18). Initially described as key enzymes involved in glycogen metabolism, they are now known to regulate a diverse array of cell functions, including a proapoptotic role for GSK-3ß in neurons and other tissues (19–21). Isolated studies have identified a specific role for GSK-3ß in the p53 response: promoting p53-dependent apoptosis in neuroblastoma cells (19) and regulating endoplasmic reticulum stress-mediated p53 activation (22). Currently, the role of specific GSK-3ß inhibitors is being explored in the treatment of diabetes and neurodegenerative diseases (23).
Herein, we identify GSK-3ß as a unique regulator of p53 activity and show that GSK-3ß participates in regulating p53 activity in both the nucleus and mitochondria. In contrast to its proapoptotic role in other tissues, we found that pharmacologic modulation of GSK-3ß dramatically promoted p53-induced apoptosis in human colorectal cancer cells. Apoptosis occurred even with concurrent impairment of p53 transcriptional activity and was mediated through direct mitochondrial p53 activity, which requires Bax but not Puma. These findings reveal a novel mechanism used by cells to regulate p53 activity in colorectal cancer cells and provide a novel approach that can be used to modulate chemotherapy.
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Materials and Methods |
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Western blotting, immunoprecipitation, and microarray analysis. Cells were scraped, collected, and lysed as described previously (24). Protein samples (50 µg) were separated by SDS-PAGE and transferred onto Immobilon membranes (Millipore, Bedford, MA). Antibodies against the following proteins are used: p53 (DO-1), p21, poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP), GSK-/ß, -tubulin, and ß-actin (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Santa Cruz, CA); Puma (Ab-1, Oncogene, Uniondale, NY); Bax (Sigma), phosphor-(Ser9/21)-GSK3/ß, and caspase-9 (Cell Signaling Technologies, Beverly, MA); phosphor-(Tyr216/279)-GSK3/ß (Upstate Biotechnologies, Lake Placid, NY); and cytochrome c (BD PharMingen, San Diego, CA). To detect Bax conformational change, cells were lysed in 1% CHAPS buffer and the soluble fraction was immunoprecipitated with anti-Bax monoclonal antibody (6A7, BD PharMingen) and followed by immunobloting with anti-Bax polyclonal antibody. Microarray analysis was done as described (11).
Fluorescence-activated cell sorting analysis of DNA content and caspase-3 activity. Cells were harvested and fixed in 70% ethanol. Fixed cells were stained with propidium iodide (50 µg/mL) after treatment with RNase (100 µg/mL). The stained cells were analyzed for DNA content by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) in a FACSCalibur (Becton Dickinson Instrument, San Jose, CA). Cell cycle fractions were quantified using the CellQuest software (Becton Dickinson). To measure caspase-3 activity, cells were fixed with Cytofix/Cytoperm solution (BD PharMingen) according to the manufacturer's instructions and then stained with FITC-conjugated rabbit anti-active caspase-3 monoclonal antibody (BD PharMingen). Quantification of cells positive for the caspase-3 detection was done by flow cytometry.
RNA interference. SMARTpool GSK-3ß and GSK-3 small interfering RNAs (siRNA) and negative control siRNA were purchased from Dharmacon, Inc. (Lafayette, CO); HCT116 cells were transfected with LipofectAMINE 2000 reagent (Invitrogen) according to manufacturer's instructions in the presence of siRNAs.
Adenoviral infections. Adenovirus Ad-LacZ and Ad-p53 were obtained from Dr. Shibin Zhou (Johns Hopkins University). Cells were grown to 50% confluence and infected with recombinant adenovirus as described (25). Twenty-four hours after the infection, cells were treated with drugs for indicated times.
Subcellular fractionation. Cells were lysed in mitochondria lysis buffer [210 mmol/L mannitol, 70 mmol/L sucrose, 10 mmol/L HEPES (pH 7.4), 1 mmol/L EDTA, and protease inhibitor cocktail] with a Dounce homogenizer and subjected to centrifugation at 1,000 x g to pellet nuclei. Post-nuclear supernatant was centrifuged at 10,000 x g to pellet mitochondria-enriched heavy membrane fraction, and the resulting supernatant was further centrifuged to obtain cytosolic fraction. Total proteins (30 µg) from cytosolic or mitochondrial fractions were subjected to immunoblot analysis.
Measurement of mitochondrial permeability transition. Cells were harvested by centrifugation at 300 x g at 4°C for 5 minutes. Mitochondrial permeability transition was determined by staining the cells with JC-1 (BD PharMingen) according to the manufacturer's instructions. Mitochondrial permeability transition was quantified by flow cytometric determination of cells with decreased red fluorescence (i.e., with mitochondria displaying a lower membrane potential, 
m). Data are given in percentage of cells with low m.
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Results |
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59%) compared with cells treated with Adriamycin or LY2119301 alone (5-8%). In contrast, the synergistic induction of cell death was not seen in p53 knockout HCT116 cells (Fig. 1A) under the same condition, suggesting that the cell death is p53 dependent. The cell death was attributable to apoptosis, because similar results were obtained by using caspase-3 activity assay (Fig. 1B). LY2119301 also triggered a p53-dependent apoptosis in response to other DNA-damaging agents including VP-16 and camptothecin (Fig. 1C). Moreover, LY2119301 greatly sensitized 5-FU-indcued apoptosis in a strictly p53-dependent manner (Fig. 1D). Remarkably, dose-effect experiments showed that LY2119301 induced a 10-fold increase in apoptosis induction by 5-FU, which is one of the most commonly used chemotherapeutic agents in the treatment of colorectal cancer. Thus, pharmacologic inhibition of GSK-3ß not only converted p53-mediated damage response from growth arrest to apoptosis but also further sensitized p53-dependent apoptotic response. The apoptotic effect of LY2119301 on p53 response was also observed in another p53 wild-type colorectal cancer cell line RKO but not in its p53-inactive counterpart RKO/E6 cells (Fig. 1E). Similarly, apoptosis was not induced in other p53 mutant colon cancer cell lines SW480 and HT29 (data not shown). These findings suggest that GSK-3ß inhibitor LY2119301 promotes chemotherapeutic agent–induced apoptosis in a manner that strictly requires intact p53.
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promotes p53-dependent apoptosis. To verify that GSK-3ß modulation accounts for the above observation, we examined the effects of three other structurally unrelated small-molecule GSK-3 inhibitors: SB-216763, SB-415286, and lithium chloride (LiCl). The former two compounds are competitive ATP inhibitors that are selective GSK-3 inhibitors (27), whereas lithium inhibits GSK-3 by acting as a competitive inhibitor of Mg2+ while having no inhibitory effect on other protein kinases (19, 28, 29). Similar to LY2119301, lithium treatment induced a strong apoptosis in HCT116 cells exposed to chemotherapeutic agents in a p53-dependent manner (Fig. 2A). Surprisingly, SB-216763 and SB-415286 had no effect on Adriamycin-treated cells, even at high concentrations up to 20 µmol/L (Fig. 2B). This is in contrast to LY2119301 that was able to induce apoptosis in Adriamycin-treated cells at a concentration as low as 250 nmol/L (Fig. 2B).
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and ß) and their activities can be regulated by activating phosphorylation on Tyr279/Tyr216, or by inhibitory phosphorylation on Ser21/Ser9 (18). Specific GSK-3 inhibitors can either inhibit activating tyrosine phosphorylation or induce inhibitory serine autophosphorylation (18, 23, 30, 31). As such, phosphorylation status at these specific residues was used as surrogate marker for GSK-3/ß activity. Treatment of HCT116 cells with LY2119301 and lithium resulted in an identical increase in inhibitory serine phosphorylation on GSK-3ß and to a much lesser extent on GSK-3 (Fig. 2C, lanes 2 and 5). In contrast, SB-216763 and SB-415286 only induced Ser21 phosphorylation on GSK-3 and even slightly reduced the Ser9 phosphorylation on GSK-3ß (Fig. 2C, lanes 3-4). Furthermore, LY2119301 almost completely blocked the active tyrosine phosphorylation on both GSK-3 and GSK-3ß, whereas SB-216763 and SB-415286 reduced tyrosine phosphorylation on GSK-3 only (Fig. 2C, lanes 3-4). These findings suggest that LY2119301 and lithium inhibit both GSK-3 and GSK-3ß but predominately on GSK-3ß, whereas SB-216763 and SB-415286 were only inhibitory to GSK-3 in HCT116 cells, although both of them were previously shown to be equally effective at inhibiting GSK-3 and GSK-3ß by using peptide-based in vitro protein kinase assays (27). Therefore, the apoptotic effect of GSK-3 inhibitors seems associated with the specific inactivation of GSK-3ß but not GSK-3. Importantly, lithium, in contrast to LY2119301, did not block the activating tyrosine phosphorylation of GSK-3/ß (Fig. 2C, lane 5) but was still able to induce the apoptotic phenotype. Thus, inhibition of activating tyrosine phosphorylation is not required for the apoptotic effect of GSK-3ß inhibitor. Instead, the induction of inhibitory Ser9 phosphorylation of GSK-3ß is the common feature of both LY2119301 and lithium and thus seems associated with their apoptotic effects. The induction of Ser9 phosphorylation of GSK-3ß by LY2119301 and lithium is not likely the result of activation of other upstream kinases, such as AKT, because lithium is known to increase serine autophosphorylation through direct inhibition of GSK-3 itself, probably through inhibition of GSK-3-dependent phosphatase 1 (30). Furthermore, treatment of cells with LY294002 that inhibits AKT did not block the Ser9 phosphorylation triggered by LY2119301 and lithium (data not shown).
To test if GSK-3ß knockdown by RNA interference (RNAi) would also sensitize DNA damage–induced apoptosis, HCT116 cells were transfected with GSK-3ß, GSK-3 or negative control siRNA for 48 hours and followed by VP-16 treatment. Figure 2D shows that RNAis efficiently and specifically knocked down the expression of GSK-3 and GSK-3ß, respectively. However, knockdown of GSK-3ß or GSK-3 did not result in more cell death in response to VP-16, as no obvious PARP cleavage was observed. Thus, merely reduction of GSK-3ß level was not sufficient to trigger cell death in response to DNA damage. This observation is consistent with the notion that the induction of inhibitory Ser9 phosphorylation of GSK-3ß might be important for the efficient apoptosis induction in colorectal cancer cells in response to DNA damage. GSK-3ß siRNA, which could not induce Ser9 phosphorylation, thus failed to mimic the apoptotic effect of GSK-3ß inhibitors.
Pharmacologic modulation of GSK-3ß impairs p53 accumulation and transactivation of p53 target genes in response to genotoxic stress. To determine the effects of GSK-3ß inhibitors on p53 response, we did immunoblot analyses of p53 and p53 targets. HCT116 (Fig. 3A) and RKO (Fig. 3B) cells were treated with Adriamycin, VP-16, and 5-FU in the presence or absence of LY2119301. Cells treated with chemotherapeutic agents exhibited progressive accumulation of p53 and activation of its target genes, such as p21 and Puma, mediating growth arrest and apoptosis, respectively. In the presence of LY2119301, p53 accumulation induced by chemotherapy was markedly and consistently impaired, as was induction of p21 and Puma. Thus, LY2119301 impaired p53 accumulation in response to genotoxic stress and reduced its transcriptional activity. Importantly, expression of Bax, a p53 target known to be essential for mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis in colon cancer (32), was not induced following p53 activation. This is in agreement with previous reports that Bax is not a robust target of p53 in colon cancer cells (25, 33). Accordingly, LY2119301 treatment had no effect on Bax levels (Fig. 3A and B). Similarly, treatment with lithium that inhibits GSK-3ß as well also impaired p53 accumulation in response to Adriamycin, VP-16, and 5-FU and reduced the induction of p53 target gene p21 (Fig. 3C, left). Consistent with the apoptotic phenotype, cleavage of PARP was remarkably increased in cells treated with genotoxic agents in the presence of LY2119301 or lithium. In contrast, SB-216763 and SB-415286 that are only inhibitory to GSK-3 in these cells had no effect on p53 accumulation and p21 induction and did not induce PARP cleavage (Fig. 3C, right).
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GSK-3ß inhibitor LY2119301 promotes apoptosis induced by exogenous p53. We next investigated whether GSK-3ß inactivation also promotes apoptosis induced by exogenous overexpression of p53. We used two p53 expressing systems: a tetracycline-inducible p53 expressing colon cancer DLD1 cell line (25) and HCT116 cells infected with an adenovirus expression p53. In both cases, apoptosis induced by enforced p53 expression was significantly increased in the presence of LY2119301 (Fig. 4A-B). Under these circumstances, LY2119301 had no effect on ectopically expressed p53 protein levels, or p53-dependent transcription of p21 (Fig. 4A-B, right), probably due to nonphysiologic regulation of p53 in this context. Therefore, this induction of apoptosis was not likely due to the reduced expression of p21, although it has been reported that altered balance between p21 and p53 proapoptotic targets such as Puma can switch the p53 response from growth arrest to apoptosis (12, 13).
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Discussion |
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First, the p53-mediated apoptosis, induced by GSK-3ß inhibitors LY2119301 and lithium, was robust even when p53-mediated transactivation was remarkably impaired. This challenges the long-held view that p53 induces apoptosis largely through transcriptional activation of proapoptotic genes. This finding is in agreement with a growing body of evidence that support the premise that p53-dependent transcription is not always required for its apoptotic function (41–43) and further reinforce a direct role of p53 in inducing apoptosis (14, 15). Consistent with this notion is our finding that the proapoptotic Bcl2 family member Puma, the most inducible p53 proapoptotic target (11, 35), is not required for GSK-3ß inhibitor–induced but p53-dependent apoptosis. This is in sharp contrast to the previous studies where Puma was shown to be essential for p53-mediated apoptosis in mouse primary thymocytes (36, 44, 45) or p21-depleted HCT116 cells (36). However, as recently proposed (16), p53-dependent transactivation of proapoptotic target genes, such as Puma, only contributes to a late stage of apoptosis. This is preceded by an earlier wave of robust apoptosis, which is clearly transcription independent and is mediated by direct p53 mitochondrial function. In support of this model, experiments on thymocytes from Puma–/– mice showed protection from apoptosis only after prolonged treatment with 
-IR after 16 to 72 hours. Remarkably, there was little difference between wild-type and Puma–/– cells within the first 8 hours after damage when apoptosis is believed to be primarily mediated by the direct function of p53 at the mitochondria (16, 44, 45).
Second, although the direct role of p53 in inducing apoptosis has been described by several groups (14, 46, 47), little is known about how this arm of p53 function is regulated. Our study identified a novel regulator of p53-dependent direct apoptotic pathway. Modulation of GSK-3ß, by two structurally unrelated inhibitors LY2119301 and lithium, was able to consistently and robustly convert the p53 response from growth arrest to apoptosis. Although GSK-3ß inhibition by LY2119301 and lithium can diminish p53-dependent p21 induction, which might contribute to the increased apoptosis, we propose that this is not the primary mechanism through which GSK-3ß inactivation triggers p53-dependent apoptosis. Indeed, LY2119301 had no effect on p21 expression induced by transfected p53 but could still dramatically induce p53-dependent apoptosis through direct conformational activation of Bax. The precise mechanism through which LY2119301 and lithium regulate p53 pathway remains unknown. However, the inhibitory Ser9 phosphorylation of GSK-3ß seems important during this process. A recent study showed that Ser9 phosphorylation is required for GSK-3ß binding to 14-3-3 (48, 49). One of the mechanisms for 14-3-3 to regulate apoptosis is through binding and sequestration of Bax (50) or Bad (51, 52) and thus prevents Bax activation. On this basis, we speculate that increased Ser9 phosphorylation of GSK-3ß by LY2119301 or lithium could displace Bax or Bad by competitively binding to 14-3-3 thus promoting Bax activation and cell death. Thus, the modulation of the p53 pathway by GSK-3ß inhibitors may be caused by molecular events subsequent to the Ser9 phosphorylation and protein-protein interaction rather than the reduced activity of GSK-3ß itself. Consistent with this notion, we found that simply knockdown of GSK-3ß expression by siRNA, which could not induce the Ser9 phosphorylation, failed to induce the same phenotype.
Third, p53 translocation to the mitochondria can directly trigger apoptosis through Bax activation (14). In this study, we found that p53 accumulation occurred quickly in the mitochondria under both apoptotic (5-FU-treated cells) and nonapoptotic conditions (VP-16-treated cells). Moreover, LY2119301 treatment induced massive apoptosis in DNA-damaged p53 wild-type HCT116 cells, albeit p53 level was reduced in the mitochondria. These results indicate that merely p53 accumulation in the mitochondria is not sufficient to activate apoptosis and that the level of p53 in the mitochondria is not necessarily correlated to the level of apoptosis in colorectal cancer cells. A recent study shows that siRNA knockdown of Bcl-2 expression in HCT116 cells can trigger a strong p53-dependent apoptosis without requiring the genotoxic stress and p53 accumulation (53). Thus, the apoptosis induction might depend on the fine balance between p53 interaction with proapoptotic and antiapoptotic proteins in Bcl-2 family. Further studies will investigate how the GSK-3ß inhibitors interfere with this balance and trigger apoptosis in colon cancer cells.
Fourth, the regulation of GSK-3ß on p53 apoptotic response seems context dependent. In human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells, inhibition of GSK-3ß by lithium was also found to inhibit p53-dependent transcription but impaired the p53 apoptotic response upon DNA damage (19, 54). Thus, the outcome of the GSK-3ß inhibition on p53 response seems tissue specific. The reason for this tissue specificity is unknown. It has been suggested that the control of apoptosis may rest on tissue- and pathway-specific interactions of multiple Bcl-2-related proteins (55). Another possibility is that the mechanism of p53-mediated apoptosis may itself be tissue dependent. It is well documented that p53-dependent transcriptional activity is indispensable for apoptosis in mouse embryonic stem cells, primary thymocytes (56, 57), and normal rat kidney cells (58). However, this has not been consistently shown in cancer cells, and in many cases, p53-dependent transcription has been found not to be essential and even inhibitory for its apoptotic activity (33). Theoretically, this could account for the differences in apoptosis seen after GSK-3ß inactivation in colorectal cancer lines, where p53-mediated direct mitochondrial activation may predominate, versus other cancer cell lines, which require p53-transcriptional activity for apoptosis.
Finally, these findings raise an intriguing therapeutic potential that may be exploited clinically. GSK-3ß inhibitors are already in use for cancer treatment. It is therefore conceivable that specific GSK-3ß inhibitors can be used in combination with chemotherapeutic agents to augment cancer cell death. In vitro assays have shown a profound synergistic effect on 5-FU mediated apoptosis, which is the first line of chemotherapy used in colorectal cancer. Importantly, the tissue specificity of GSK-3ß function and its dual regulations on p53 response suggest a further level of therapeutic benefit: GSK-3ß inactivation could selectively promote p53-mediated apoptosis through a direct mitochondrial pathway in cancer cells, whereas having no or protective effect on normal tissues where transcription-dependent death pathway of p53 is impaired.
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Acknowledgments |
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The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. This article must therefore be hereby marked advertisement in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
We thank Dr. Bert Vogelstein for p53, Bax, or Puma-depleted HCT116 cells and p53-inducible DLD1 cells; Dr. Shibin Zhou for Ad-p53; and Samuel Ong for technical assistance.
Received 4/ 8/05. Revised 6/20/05. Accepted 7/14/05.
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References |
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